战争与和平(上)-第278章

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e　this　effort。　The　French；　attacking　the　Russian　army　with　the　object　of　driving　it　from　its　position；　ought　to　have　made　this　effort；　because　as　long　as　the　Russians　still　barred　the　way　to　Moscow；　as　before　the　battle；　the　aim　of　the　French　had　not　been　attained；　and　all　losses　and　exertions　had　been　in　vain。　But　the　French　did　not　make　that　effort。　Some　historians　assert　that　if　Napoleon　had　only　let　his　Old　Guard　advance；　the　battle　would　have　been　gained。　To　talk　of　what　might　have　happened　if　Napoleon　had　let　his　Guard　advance　is　much　the　same　as　to　talk　of　what　would　happen　if　spring　came　in　autumn。　That　could　not　have　been。　Napoleon　did　not　do　so；　not　because　he　did　not　want　to；　but　because　it　was　impossible　to　do　so。　All　the　generals；　officers；　and　soldiers　of　the　French　army　knew　that　it　was　impossible　to　make　this　final　effort；　because　the　flagging　spirit　of　the　troops　did　not　allow　of　it。
It　was　not　Napoleon　alone　who　had　that　nightmare　feeling　that　the　mighty　arm　was　stricken　powerless：　all　the　generals；　all　the　soldiers　of　the　French　army；　those　who　fought　and　those　who　did　not；　after　all　their　experiences　of　previous　battles　（when　after　one…tenth　of　the　effort　the　enemy　had　always　run）；　showed　the　feeling　of　horror　before　this　foe；　who；　after　losing　ONE　HALF　of　the　army；　still　stood　its　ground　as　dauntless　at　the　end　as　at　the　beginning　of　the　battle。　The　moral　force　of　the　French；　the　attacking　army；　was　exhausted。　Not　the　victory；　signalised　by　the　capture　of　rags　on　the　end　of　sticks；　called　flags；　or　of　the　ground　on　which　the　troops　were　standing；　but　a　moral　victory；　that　which　compels　the　enemy　to　recognise　the　moral　superiority　of　his　opponent；　and　his　own　impotence；　was　won　by　the　Russians　at　Borodino。　The　French　invading　army；　like　a　ravening　beast　that　has　received　its　death…wound　in　its　onslaught；　felt　its　end　near。　But　it　could　not　stop；　no　more　than　the　Russian　army—of　half　its　strength—could　help　retreating。　After　that　check；　the　French　army　could　still　drag　on　to　Moscow；　but　there；　without　fresh　effort　on　the　part　of　the　Russian　army；　its　ruin　was　inevitable；　as　its　life…blood　ebbed　away　from　the　deadly　wound　dealt　it　at　Borodino。　The　direct　consequence　of　the　battle　of　Borodino　was　Napoleon’s　cause…less　flight　from　Moscow；　his　return　by　the　old　Smolensk　road；　the　ruin　of　the　invading　army　of　five　hundred　thousand　men；　and　the　downfall　of　the　Napoleonic　rule；　on　which；　for　the　first　time　at　Borodino；　was　laid　the　hand　of　a　foe　of　stronger　spirit。


Part　Eleven
Chapter　1
FOR　THE　HUMAN　MIND　the　absolute　continuity　of　motion　is　inconceivable。　The　laws　of　motion　of　any　kind　only　become　comprehensible　to　man　when　he　examines　units　of　this　motion；　arbitrarily　selected。　But　at　the　same　time　it　is　from　this　arbitrary　division　of　continuous　motion　into　discontinuous　units　that　a　great　number　of　human　errors　proceeds。
We　all　know　the　so…called　sophism　of　the　ancients；　proving　that　Achilles　would　never　overtake　the　tortoise；　though　Achilles　walked　ten　times　as　fast　as　the　tortoise。　As　soon　as　Achilles　passes　over　the　space　separating　him　from　the　tortoise；　the　tortoise　advances　one…tenth　of　that　space：　Achilles　passes　over　that　tenth；　but　the　tortoise　has　advanced　a　hundredth；　and　so　on　to　infinity。　This　problem　seemed　to　the　ancients　insoluble。　The　irrationality　of　the　conclusion　（that　Achilles　will　never　overtake　the　tortoise）　arises　from　the　arbitrary　assumption　of　disconnected　units　of　motion；　when　the　motion　both　of　Achilles　and　the　tortoise　was　continuous。
By　taking　smaller　and　smaller　units　of　motion　we　merely　approach　the　solution　of　the　problem；　but　we　never　attain　it。　It　is　only　by　assuming　an　infinitely　small　magnitude；　and　a　progression　rising　from　it　up　to　a　tenth；　and　taking　the　sum　of　that　geometrical　progression；　that　we　can　arrive　at　the　solution　of　the　problem。　A　new　branch　of　mathematics；　dealing　with　infinitely　small　quantities；　gives　now　in　other　more　complex　problems　of　dynamics　solutions　of　problems　that　seemed　insoluble。
This　new　branch　of　mathematics；　unknown　to　the　ancients；　by　assuming　infinitely　small　quantities；　that　is；　such　as　secure　the　chief　condition　of　motion　（absolute　continuity）；　corrects　the　inevitable　error　which　the　human　intellect　cannot　but　make；　when　it　considers　disconnected　units　of　motion　instead　of　continuous　motion。
In　the　investigation　of　the　laws　of　historical　motion　precisely　the　same　mistake　arises。
The　progress　of　humanity；　arising　from　an　innumerable　multitude　of　individual　wills；　is　continuous　in　its　motion。
The　discovery　of　the　laws　of　this　motion　is　the　aim　of　history。　But　in　order　to　arrive　at　the　laws　of　the　continuous　motion　due　to　the　sum　of　all　these　individual　wills；　the　human　mind　assumes　arbitrary；　disconnected　units。　The　first　proceeding　of　the　historian　is　taking　an　arbitrary　series　of　continuous　events　to　examine　it　apart　from　others；　while　in　reality　there　is　not；　and　cannot　be；　a　beginning　to　any　event；　but　one　event　flows　without　any　break　in　continuity　from　another。　The　second　proceeding　is　to　examine　the　action　of　a　single　person；　a　sovereign；　or　a　general；　as　though　it　were　equivalent　to　the　sum　of　many　individual　wills；　though　the　sum　of　individual　wills　never　finds　expression　in　the　action　of　a　single　historical　personage。
Historical　science　as　it　advances　is　continually　taking　smaller　and　smaller　units　for　analysis；　and　in　this　way　strives　to　approximate　the　truth。　But　however　small　the　units　of　which　history　takes　cognisance；　we　feel　that　the　assumption　of　a　unit；　disconnected　from　another；　the　assumption　of　a　beginning　of　any　phenomenon；　and　the　assumption　that　the　individual　wills　of　all　men　find　expression　in　the　actions　of　a　single　historical　personage　are　false　in　themselves。
Every　conclusion　of　history　can；　without　the　slightest　effort　on　the　part　of　the　critic；　be　dissipated　like　dust；　leaving　no　trace；　simply　through　criticism　selecting；　as　the　object　of　its　analysis；　a　greater　or　smaller　disconnected　unit；　which　it　has　a　perfect　right　to　do；　seeing　that　the　unit　of　history　is　always　selected　arbitrarily。
Only　by　assuming　an　infinitely　small　unit　for　observation—a　differential　of　history—that　is；　the　homogeneous　tendencies　of　men；　and　arriving　at　the　integral　calculus　（that　is；　taking　the　sum　of　those　infinitesimal　quantities）；　can　we　hope　to　arrive　at　the　laws　of　history。
The　first　fifteen　years　of　the　nineteenth　century　present　the　spectacle　of　an　extraordinary　movement　of　millions　of　men。　Men　leave　their　habitual　pursuits；　rush　from　one　side　of　Europe　to　the　other；　plunder；　slaughter　one　another；　triumph　and　despair；　and　the　whole　current　of　life　is　transformed　and　presents　a　quickened　activity；　first　moving　at　a　growing　speed；　and　then　slowly　slackening　again。　What　was　the　cause　of　that　activity；　or　from　what　laws　did　it　arise？　asks　the　human　intellect。
The　historians；　in　reply　to　that　inquiry；　lay　before　us　the　sayings　and　doings　of　some　dozens　of　men　in　one　of　the　buildings　of　the　city　of　Paris；　summing　up　those　doings　and　sayings　by　one　word—revolution。　Then　they　give　us　a　detailed　biography　of　Napoleon；　and　of　certain　persons　favourably　or　hostilely　disposed　to　him；　talk　of　the　influence　of　some　of　these　persons　upon　others；　and　then　say　that　this　it　is　to　which　that　activity　is　due；　and　these　are　its　laws。
But　the　human　intellect　not　only　refuses　to　believe　in　that　explanation；　but　flatly　declares　that　the　method　of　explanation　is　not　a　correct　one；　because　in　this　explanation　a　smaller　phenomenon　is　taken　as　the　cause　of　a　greater　phenomenon。　The　sum　of　men’s　individual　wills　produced　both　the　revolution　and　Napoleon；　and　only　the　sum　of　those　wills　endured　them　and　then　destroyed　them。
“But　whenever　there　have　been　wars；　there　have　been　great　military　leaders；　whenever　there　have　been　revolutions　in　states；　there　have　been　great　men；”　says　history。　“Whenever　there　have　been　great　military　leaders　there　have；　indeed；　been　wars；”　replies　the　human　reason；　“but　that　does　not　prove　that　the　generals　were　the　cause　of　the　wars；　and　that　the　factors　leading　to　warfare　can　be　found　in　the　personal　activity　of　one　man。”
Whenever；　looking　at　my　watch；　I　see　the　hand　has　reached　the　figure　x；　I　he