political economy-第4章
按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
discovers its first origin in the fruits of the earth。 The labours of the husbandman； of the artisan； of the merchant； consume those fruits in the shape of wages and produce them under new forms。 The proprietor alone receives them at their source from the hands of nature herself； and by means of them is enabled to pay the wages of all his countrymen； who labour only for him。 This ingenious system totally supplanted that of the merchants。 The economists denied the existence of that commercial balance to which their antagonists attached so much importance； they asserted the impossibility of that accumulation of gold and silver which the others expected from it； throughout the nation； they could see only proprietors of land； the sole dispensers of the national fortune； productive workmen； or labourers producing the revenue of the former。 and a hired class； in which they ranked merchants also denying to them； as to the artisans； the faculty of producing any thing。 The plans； which these two sects recommended to governments； differed not less than their principles。 While the mercantilists wished authority to interfere in every thing； the economists incessantly repeated laissez faire et laissez passer （let every man do as he pleases； and every thing take its course；） for as the public interest consists in the union of all individual interests； individual interest will guide each man more surely to the public interest than any government can do。 An excessive ferment was excited in France by the system of the economists。 The government of that nation allowed the people to talk about public affairs； but not to understand them。 The discussion； of Quesnay's theory was sufficiently unshackled； but none of the facts or documents in the hands of the administration； were presented to the public eye。 In the system of the French economists； it is easy to discern the effects produced by this mixture of ingenious theory and involuntary ignorance。 It seduced the people； because they were now for the first time occupied with their own public affairs。 But； during these discussions； a free nation； possessed of the right to examine its own public affairs； was producing a system not less ingenious； and much better supported by fact and observation； a system which； after a short struggle； at length cast its predecessors into the shade； for truth always triumphs in the end； over dreams； however brilliant。 Adam Smith； author of this third system； which represents labour as the sole origin of wealth； and economy as the sole means of accumulating it； has； in one sense； carried the science of political economy to perfection； at a single step。 Experience； no doubt； has disclosed new truths to us； the experience of late years； in particular； has forced us to make sad discoveries： but in completing the system of Smith； that experience has also confirmed it。 Of the various succeeding authors； no one has sought any other theory。 Some have applied what he advanced to the administration of different counties； others have confirmed it by new experiments and new observations； some have expanded it by developments； which flow from the principles laid down by him； some have even here and there detected errors in his work； but it has been by following out the truths which he taught and rectifying them by light borrowed from its author。 Never did philosopher effect a more complete revolution in any science： for those even who dissent from his doctrine acknowledge his authority； sometimes they attack； solely because they do not understand him； most commonly； they flatter themselves with the belief of still following； even while they contradict him。 We shall devote the rest of this article to explain the science which he taught us； though in an order different from his。 We shall arrange it under the six following heads： Formation and Progress of Wealth： Territorial Wealth； Commercial Wealth； Money； Taxes； and Population。
Chapter 2
Formation and Progress of Wealth
Man brings into the world with him certain wants； which he must satisfy in order to live； certain desires which lead him to expect happiness from particular enjoyments； and a certain industry or aptitude for labour； which enables him to satisfy the requisitions of both。 His wealth originates in this industry： his wants and desires are its employments。 All that man values is created by his industry； all that he creates is destined to be consumed in satisfying his wants and desires。 But； between the moment of its production by labour； and its consumption by enjoyment； the thing destined for man's use may have an existence more or less durable。 It is this thing； this accumulated and still unconsumed fruit of labour； which is called wealth。 Wealth may exist not only without any sign of exchange； or without money； but even without any possibility of exchange； or without trade。 Suppose a man to be left on a desert island； the undisputed property of this whole island is not wealth； whatever be the natural fertility of its soil； the abundance of the game straying in its forests； of the fish sporting on its shores； or the mines concealed in its bosom。 On the contrary； amid all these benefits presented him by nature； the man may sink to the lowest degree of penury； and die perhaps of hunger。 But； if his industry enables him to catch some of the animals that wander in his woods： and if； instead of consuming them immediately； he reserves them for his future wants； if； in this interval； he gets them tamed and multiplied； so that he can live on their milk； or associate them to his labour； he is then beginning to acquire wealth； because labour has gained him the possession of these animals； and a fresh labour has rendered them domestic。 The measure of his wealth will not be the price； which he might obtain for his property in exchange； because he is debarred from all exchange； but the length of time during which no farther labour will be requisite to satisfy his wants； compared with the extent of those wants。 By subduing those animals； the man has made them his property and wealth； by subduing the ground； he will； in like manner； convert it into property and wealth。 His island is destitute of value so long as no labour has been bestowed on it； but if； instead of consuming its fruits the moment they come to his hand； he reserves them for future want； if he commits them again to the earth； again to be multiplied； if he tills his fields to augment their productive power； or defends them by inclosures from wild beasts； if he plants them with trees； the fruit of which he does not look for till many years have elapsed； he is then creating the value； not only of annual produce raised by his labour from the ground； but also of the ground itself； which he had tamed； as he tamed the wild beasts； and rendered fit to second his exertions。 In that case he is rich； and the more so the longer he can suspend his labours without suffering new wants。 Our Solitary； being now liberated from the most pressing of all demands； that of hunger； may devote his exertions to provide lodging and clothes； or to improve those already provided。 He will build himself a hut； and fit it out with such furniture as his unaided labour may suffice to construct； he will change the skin and fleeces of his sheep into shoes or coats； and the more convenient his dwelling shall be rendered； the better his storehouse shall be filled with provision for his future food and clothing； the more rich may he call himself。 The history of this man is the history of the human race： labour alone has created all kinds of wealth。 However great the beneficence of nature； she gives nothing gratuitously to man； though； when addressed by him； she is ready to lend her assistance in multiplying his powers to an indefinite extent。 The history of wealth is； in all cases； comprised within the limits now specified … the labour which creates； the economy which accumulates； the consumption which destroys。 An article which has not been wrought； or has not mediately or immediately received its value from labour； is not wealth； however useful； however necessary； it may be for life。 An article； which is not useful to man； which does not satisfy any of his desires；
