political economy-第33章
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f marriage is sacred； if it is one great means of attaching men to virtue； and recompensing the chagrins of declining years； by the growing hopes of allowing an honourable old age to succeed an active youth； it is not because this institution renders lawful the pleasures of sense； but because it imposes new duties on the father of a family； and returns him the sweetest recompense in the ties of husband and father。 Religious morality ought therefore to teach men； that marriage is made for all citizens equally； that it is the object towards which they should all direct their efforts； but that this object has not been attained except so far as they are able to fulfil their duties towards the beings whom they call into existence： and after obtaining the happiness of being fathers； after renewing their families； and giving this stay and hope to their declining years； they are no less obliged to live chastely with their wives； than single persons with such as do not belong to them。 Self…interest powerfully warns men against this indefinite multiplication of their families； to which they have been invited by so fatal a religious error； and no one ought to be disquieted if this order is observed remissly。 In general at least three births are required to give two such individuals as arrive at the age of marriage； and the niches of population are not so exactly formed； that they cannot by turns admit a little more and a little less。 Only government ought to awaken the prudence of citizens deficient in it； and never to deceive them by hopes of an independent lot； when this illusory establishment shall leave them exposed to misery； suffering； and death。 When peasants are proprietors； the agricultural population stops of itself； when it has brought about a division of the land； such that each family is invited to labour； and may live in comfortable circumstances。 This is the case in almost all the Swiss cantons； which follow nothing but agriculture。 When two or more sons are found in one family； the younger do not marry till they can find wives who bring them some property。 Till then； they work day…labour and live by means of it。 But among peasant…cultivators； the trade of day…labour does not afford a rank； and the workman who has nothing but his limbs； can rarely find a father imprudent enough to give him his daughter。 When the land； instead of being cultivated by its proprietors； is cultivated by farmers； metayers； day…labourers； the condition of the latter classes becomes more precarious； and their multiplication is not so necessarily adjusted to the demand for their labour。 They are far worse informed than the peasant…proprietor； and yet they are called to perform a much more complicated calculation。 Living under the risk of being dismissed at a day' s notice from the land they till； it is less a question with them what this land will give； than what is their chance of being employed elsewhere。 They calculate probabilities in place of certainties； and commit themselves to fortune with regard to what they cannot investigate。 They depend on being happy； they marry much younger； they bring into the world many more children； precisely because they know less distinctly how those children are to be established。 Thus metayers； day…labourers。 all peasants depending on a master； being more imperfectly able to judge of their situation by themselves； ought to be guided and protected by government。 Landed proprietors wield all the force of monopoly against them； whilst day…labourers； acting in competition with each other； are finally reduced to work for the most wretched subsistence。 Those measures are wise； therefore； which have been adopted by legislators to fix the minimum share that should fall to each peasant。 It would； in general； be a beneficent law which should permit no division of a metairie below a certain limit； no reduction below a half on the metayer's part。 It is a beneficent law which has fixed the peasant's lot in Austria； a law which should invariably fix the Russian peasant's capitation to his landlord； would be equivalent to an emancipation from serfage； and free from all the convulsions of such a step。 The Russian nation could not； perhaps； receive a greater benefit from its government。 The statute of Elizabeth； in fine； was wise in prohibiting a cottage from being built without at least four acres of land being allotted to it。 Had this law been executed in England and Ireland； no marriage could have happened among day…labourers without a cottage to shelter the family； no cottager would have been reduced to the last degree of penury。 The industrious population which inhabit towns have still fewer data than those of the country； for calculating the lot of the succeeding generation。 The workman knows only that he has lived by his labour； he naturally believes that his children will do so likewise。 How can he judge of the extent of the market； or the general demand for labour in his country； whilst the master who employs him is incessantly mistaken on these points？ Accordingly； this class； more dependent than any other on chances of every kind for its subsistence； is exactly the class which calculates those chances least in the formation of a family。 They are the people who marry soonest； produce most children； and consequently lose most： but they do not lose their children； till after being themselves exposed to a competition which deprives them successively of all the sweets of life。 At the time when all towns were distributed into bodies of tradesmen； when a calling could not be exercised till the applicant had been united to a corporation； a workman never married till after he had been passed master。 A reception into the trade gave him the certainty of being able to maintain his family； an excessive competition did not expose the great mass of the population to the danger of dying from hunger。 Thus； all the institutions created in the republics of the middle ages； and reproduced in Queen Elizabeth's statute of apprenticeship； though keenly attacked by Adam Smith； for establishing a monopoly contrary to the consumer's interest； may be defended； not in regard to the increase of riches； but as forming a necessary obstacle to the immoderate increase of population。 Yet because the system we follow has made us experience a calamity； we ought not to imagine that no escape is to be found； except by rushing into the opposite extreme。 It is not by the suppression of corporations alone； that we have disproportionately increased the manufacturing population。 It is much more by the inordinate encouragement which all governments； at the same time； have given to production without attending to consumption。 We have already pointed out the results of this imprudent struggle； in regard to the increase of wealth。 They have been still more disastrous in producing and supporting with deceitful hopes a population； which has afterwards been abandoned to all the horrors of want。 A state ought； doubtless； to receive with gratitude whatever new industry the wants of consumers may develop but it also ought to allow the industry which is quitting it to depart； without any effort to the contrary。 When the profits of a manufacture diminish； new workmen do not engage in it； former workmen withdraw； and after some years of suffering； too long and too cruel； by any mode of treatment； the level is again established。 But if the favours of government keep up the staggering manufacture； if； trying to save it； government offers bounties for the discovery of any machine which shall spare manual labour； it will prolong suffering； and save the manufacturer only at the expense of those whom that manufacturer should support。 The guardian population presents the same species of suffering in another rank of society。 War multiplies the commissions of officers in the army and navy； the complicacy of administration multiplies the places of judges and civil agents of all kinds。 Religious zeal multiplies the places for pastors。 All of them live on pensions with a certain degree of opulence； none of them knows； or is able to insure the fund which affords him subsistence。 They reckon on ushering their children into the same career with themselves； t
