political economy-第21章
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traordinary； to the industry which it is necessary to create； to fix incessantly the thoughts of a too lively people on the career of fortune which lies before them； intimately to connect the discoveries of science with those of art； and to excite the ambition of those who have always lived in idleness； by fortunes so brilliant as； at length； to make them think of what may be accomplished by their wealth and their activity。 It is true； the mercantile capital of a nation is limited in a given time； and those who dispose of it； always desiring to put it out to the greatest advantage； have no need of any new stimulant to augment it； or turn it into the channels where it best produces profit。 But all the capital of a nation is not mercantile。 Inclination to idleness； which public institutions have fostered among certain nations； not only binds men； but also fetters fortunes。 The same indolence； which makes those people lose their time； makes them also lose their money。 The annual revenue of territorial fortunes forms of itself an immense capital； which may be added to or deducted from the sum devoted to support industry。 In southern counties； the whole revenue of the nobility was annually dissipated in useless pomp； but to recall the heads of noble families into activity has likewise been found sufficient to give them habits of economy。 The great French or Italian proprietor； becoming manufacturer has； at once； given a useful direction to the revenue of his land； by adding his own activity to that of a nation becoming more industrious； and added likewise all the power of his wealth； which formerly lay unemployed。 The torpor of a nation may sometimes be so great； that the clearest demonstration of advantages； which it might derive from a new species of industry； shall never induce it to make the attempt。 Example； alone； can then awake self…interest。 French industry has found； in the single little state of Lucca； more than ten new branches； to employ itself upon； with great advantage both for the country and those who engaged in them。 The most absolute liberty was not sufficient to direct attention to these objects。 The zeal and activity of the princess Eliza； who called into her little sovereignty several head…manufacturers； who furnished them with money and houses； who brought the produce of their shops into fashion； has founded a more durable prosperity in a decaying city； and restored to a beneficent activity much capital and intellect； which； but for her； would forever have remained unemployed。 When government means to protect commerce； it often acts with precipitation； in complete ignorance of its true interests； almost always with despotic violence； which tramples under foot the greater part of private arrangements； and almost always with an absolute forgetfulness of the advantage of consumers； who； as they form by far the most numerous class； have more right than any other to confound their well…being with that of the nation。 Yet it must not be inferred； that government never does good to trade。 It is government which can give habits of dissipation or economy； which can attach honour or discredit to industry and activity； which can turn the attention of scientific men to apply their discoveries to the arts： government is the richest of all consumers； it encourages manufactures by the mere circumstance of giving them its custom。 If to this indirect influence it join the care of rendering all communications easy； of preparing roads； canals； bridges； of protecting property； of securing a fair administration of justice； if it do not overload its subjects with taxation in levying the taxes； it adopt no disastrous system； … it will effectually have served commerce； and its beneficial influence will counterbalance many false measures； many prohibitory laws； in spite of which； and not by reason of which； commerce will continue to increase under it。
Chapter 5
Of Money
Wealth incessantly circulates from producers to consumers； by means of money。 All kinds of exchange are accomplished under this form； whether the means of producing wealth are transmitted from one proprietor to another； or when land or movable capital changes its owner； or when labour is sold； or when the object destined to be consumed reaches the hands that are to use it。 Money facilitates all these exchanges； it occurs among the different contractors as a thing which all desire； and by means of which every one may find what he immediately requires； as a thing； moreover； submitted to invariable calculation； and by means of which all other values may be appreciated； this alone being their scale。 Money performs several functions at once： it is the sign of all other values； it is their pledge and also their measure。 As a sign； money represents every other kind of wealth； by transmitting it from hand to hand we transmit a right to all other values。 It is not money itself which the day…labourer requires； but food； clothing； lodging； of which it is the sign。 It is not for money that the manufacturer wishes to exchange his produce； but for raw materials； that he may again begin to work； and for objects of consumption； that he may begin to enjoy。 It is not money which the capitalist lends the merchant to profit by； it is all that the merchant will purchase with this money immediately afterwards； for so long as the merchant keeps it in the original shape； he can draw no advantage from it； and his capital will not begin its course of production till the money is out of his hands。 By an abuse of language； which has caused much error and confusion； the words money and capital have become almost synonymous： money indeed represents all other capital； but it is itself the capital of no man； it is always barren by nature； and wealth does not begin to increase； till after money has left the hands of its possessor。 Money is not only the sign of wealth； it is also the pledge of it。 It not only represents wealth； it contains the worth of it。 Like wealth； it has been produced by a labour which it wholly compensates。 In work and advances of all sorts employed in extracting it from the mine； it has cost a value equal to what it passes for in the world。 It furnishes to trade a commodity which is expensive； because purchased like every other； it is the sole kind of wealth which is not increased by circulation； or dissipated by enjoyment。 It issues； still without alteration from the hands of him who employs it usefully； and of him who squanders it upon his pleasures。 But the high price at which society acquires money； though at first view it appears an inconvenience； is precisely what gives it the merit of being an imperishable pledge for its possessors。 As its value was not given by arbitrary convention； arbitrary convention cannot take its value away。 It may be more or less sought after according as it occurs more or less abundantly in the market； but its price can never deviate very far from what would be required to extract an equal quantity from the mine。 Money； in the last place； is a common measure of values。 Before the invention of money； it must have been very difficult to compare the value of a bag of corn with that of a yard of cloth。 Dress was equally necessary with food； but the processes by which men procured them； seemed scarcely susceptible of being compared。 Money has furnished a common and invariable unity to which every thing can be referred。 Nations； who are not acquainted with the use of metals； have； nevertheless； so felt the advantages of this common measure that they have formed an ideal unity； to which they refer every kind of value。 The important part which money performs in political economy； and the various properties by which it animates exchanges； and protects and serves to measure them； explain the illusion which has misled； not only the vulgar； but even the greater part of statesmen； and exhibited this commodity in their eyes as the efficient cause of labour； and the creator of all wealth。 It is essential for us； however； to pause here； that we may both display those errors in a clear point of view； and firmly demonstrate the principles which follow。 In the epoch of civilization； at which we are arrived； no labour can be accomplis
