political economy-第20章
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olicy at present； more or less strictly followed by all the nations of Europe； destroys all the advantages of commerce； it hinders each nation from profiting by the superiorities due to its climate； to its soil； to its situation； to the peculiar character of its people； it arms man against man； and breaks the tie which was destined to sooth national prejudices； and accelerate the civilization of the world。 According to the natural progress of increasing wealth； when capitals are yet inconsiderable； it is certainly desirable to direct them rather to some neighbouring branch of trade； than to one which is very remote； and as the trade of exportation and importation gives foreigners one half of its profit； and the natives another； a country which has little capital may desire to employ it entirely in the trade of its interior； or for its own use； and the more so； because if the market is near the producer； the same capital will be several times renewed in a given period； whilst another capital； destined for a foreign market； will scarcely accomplish a single renewal。 But the capitalist's interest will always direct him with certainty； in such cases to do what suits the country best； because his profit is proportioned to the need there is of it； and consequently to the direction in which the public demand carries him。 Besides； nations； on reckoning up their produce and their wants； almost constantly forget that neighboring foreigners are much more convenient and more advantageous producers and consumers than distant countrymen。 The relation of markets on the two banks of the Rhine is much more important； both for the German and the French merchant； than the relation of markets between the Palatinate and Brandenburgh is for the former； or between Alsace and Provence for the latter。 The ardour； with which all governments have excited every species of production； by means of their restrictive system； has brought about such a disproportion between labour and demand； that perhaps it has become necessary for every state to think first； not of the comfort； but of the existence of its subjects； and to maintain those barriers which have been so imprudently erected。 An important part of the population might； perhaps； be cut off by penury； in the course of a few years； and it is reasonable that each state should seek to preserve itself and those depending on it from such a calamity。 Yet； we cannot without pain； behold the rivetting of this anti…social system； and the abandonment of that ancient spirit of commerce； which triumphed over barbarism； and taught hostile hordes to know and esteem each other。 Governments； after having attempted to give the national producers a monopoly in their own country； have sometimes endeavoured to procure them a similar advantage in foreign countries； by treaties of commerce。 Such actions； always subordinate to policy； granted to a favoured nation an exemption from some part of the duties required from others； on consideration of some reciprocal advantage。 It cannot be doubted that such an exemption was advantageous to the nation in whose favour it was granted； but； on the other hand； it was just as disadvantageous to the nation granting it； and when a treaty of commerce bore a concession of mutual exemption； each state should have discovered； that a monopoly granted to its producers was too dearly purchased by a monopoly granted to foreigners； against its consumers： and the more so； as there existed no kind of relation between the two favoured branches of trade。 Some show of reason may be discovered； why the consumers of cloth should be taxed for the advantage of cloth manufacturers； but there is no shallow of reason why the consumers of wine in England should experience a loss； in compensation for an advantage to the sellers of goods in Portugal。 No treaty of commerce can fully satisfy the greediness of merchants desiring a monopoly； and therefore governments invented the fanatic expedient of creating in a colony a nation expressly to be purchasers from their merchants。 The colonists were prohibited from establishing any manufacture at home； that so they might be more dependent on the mother country。 They were carefully prevented from following any species of foreign trade； they were subjected to regulations the most vexatious； and contrary to their own interests； not for the mother country's good； but for the good of a small number of merchants。 The infinite advantages attached to a new country； where every kind of labour is profitable； because every thing is yet to do； enabled colonies to prosper； although they were continually sacrificed。 As their raw produce was fit for a distant trade； they had it in their power to support a most unequal exchange； in which nothing was taken from them that the buyer could procure at home； but their rapid increase itself bears witness against the system which has founded them； they have prospered by a system diametrically opposite to that followed by the mother country。 The exportation of all raw produce； the importation of all wrought produce； has been encouraged in colonies； and have presented to such as believe in the existence； and calculate the state； of a commercial balance； a result as disadvantageous for themselves； as it was advantageous for the mother country。 Doubtless； their oppression gave the latter all the profits of a monopoly； yet； in a very circumscribed market； whilst the free trade of all Europe； with all its colonies； would have been more advantageous for both； by infinitely extending the market of the one； and accelerating the progress of the other。 What justice and policy should have taught； force will obtain； and the colonial system cannot long continue。 Governments； in the last place； to favour commerce； have granted it bounties and drawbacks。 A bounty is a reward which the state decrees to the manufacturer； on account of his goods； which comes to him in the shape of profit。 A drawback is a restitution of all the taxes； which a piece of goods had paid； granted to it at the moment of its exportation。 A drawback is perfectly just and reasonable。 It leaves the national producer； in the foreign market； on a footing of equality with all his rivals； whilst； if beforehand be had paid a tax in his own country； he could not have sustained the competition。 Bounties are the strangest encouragements which a government can give。 They may be justified when granted for the fabrication of an article； the production of which it is necessary to procure at any price： but when granted on exported goods； as often happens； government pays merchants； at the expense of its own subjects； that foreigners may buy cheaper than them。 Thus； nearly all the favours which governments confer on trade and manufactures； are contrary even to sound policy or justice； and； judging of them by the law of profit and loss； we should infer； that all this attention； bestowed by government on trade； had done more ill than good。 But political economy is； in great part； a moral science。 After having calculated the interests of men； it ought also to foresee what will act upon their passions。 Ruled； as they are； by self…interest； pointing out their advantage will not be sufficient to determine their pursuit of it。 Nations have sometimes need of being shaken； as it were； to be roused from their torpor。 The small weight which would suffice to incline the balance； with a calculating people； is not sufficient when that balance is rusted by prejudice and long continued habits。 In such a case； a skilful administration must occasionally submit to allow a real and calculable loss； in order to destroy an old custom； or change a destructive prepossession。 When rooted prejudices have abandoned to disrespect every useful and industrious profession； when a nation thinks there can be no dignity except in noble indolence； when even men of science themselves； carried away by public opinion； blush at the useful applications made of their discoveries； and in such applications see nothing but what they call the cookery of their sciences； it perhaps becomes necessary to grant favours； altogether extraordinary； to the industry which it is necessary to create； to fix incessantly the thoughts of a t
