political economy-第19章
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These different expedients for the protection of commerce； are now generally decried； though almost all governments yet agree in repelling from their states the produce of foreign manufactories； or at least in loading it with heavy duties； to give the national produce an advantage。 The prohibitive system of custom…house duties plainly gives to a growing manufactory an advantage equivalent to the largest bounty。 Perhaps this manufactory scarcely produces the hundredth part of what the nation consumes of such commodities； but the hundred purchasers must compete with each other to obtain the one seller's preference； and the ninety…nine rejected by him will be compelled to obtain goods by smuggling。 In this case； the nation's loss will be as a hundred； its gain as one。 Whatever advantage may arise from giving a new manufacture to a nation； certainly there are few which deserve such a sacrifice and even these might always be set a…going by less expensive means。 Besides； we must also take into account the weighty inconveniences of establishing the vexatious system of duties； of covering the frontiers with an army of customhouse officers； and with another not less dangerous army of smugglers； and thus of training the subjects to disobedience。 We must remember； above all； that it is not the interest of a nation to produce every thing indifferently； that it ought to confine its efforts to such goods or commodities as it can manufacture at the cheapest rate； or to such as； whatever price they cost； are essential to its safety。 It ought to be recollected that each merchant knows his own business better than government can do； that the whole nation's productive power is limited； that in a given time； it has but a given number of hands； and a given quantity of capital； that by forcing it to enter upon a kind of work which it did not previously execute； we almost always at the same time force it to abandon a kind of work which it did execute： whilst the most probable result of such a change is the abandonment of a more lucrative manufacture for another which is less so； and which personal interest had designedly overlooked。 If the prohibitive system gives a very powerful； though very expensive encouragement to rising manufactures； it can offer； in regard to such； no advantage to those which are already prosperous； the sacrifice at least which it imposes on consumers； is entirely useless。 If the manufacture was destined for exportation； government； by granting a monopoly of the interior market； causes it to abandon its ancient habits to assume others which probably are less advantageous。 Every manufacture destined for exportation gives proof of not fearing the competition of foreigners。 From the moment that it can support competition abroad； notwithstanding the expense of transport； it has still less reason to dread this competition in the very place of production。 Thus nothing is more common than to see goods prohibited which never could have been imported with advantage； and which gained credit solely by being so prohibited。 By the prohibitive system； governments had proposed to increase the number and productive powers of their manufactures。 It is doubtful if they rightly knew the price they paid for this advantage； and the prodigious sacrifices they imposed on consumers； their subjects； to bring into existence an unborn class of producers； but they succeeded much more rapidly even than speculators on political economy expected。 For a time they excited the bitterest complaints on the part of consumers； but even these complaints ceased afterwards； because sacrifices in fact had also ceased； and manufactures so powerfully encouraged； had soon provided with profusion for the national wants。 But this emulation of all governments to establish manufactures every where； has produced two strange and unexpected effects on the commercial system of Europe； one is the disproportionate increase of production without any relation to consumption； the other is the effort of each nation to live isolated； to suffice for itself； and refuse every kind of foreign trade。 Before governments had been seized with this manufacturing ardour； the establishment of a new manufacture had always to struggle with a crowd of national habits and prejudices； which form as it were the vis inertiae of the human mind。 To overcome this force； it was necessary to offer speculators a very manifest advantage； hence a new species of industry could scarcely arise without a distinct previous demand； and the market was always found before the manufacture destined to occupy it。 Governments； in their zeal； have not proceeded upon this principle； they have ordered stockings and hats beforehand； reckoning that legs and heads would be found afterwards。 They have seen their people well and economically clothed by strangers； and yet have caused them to produce clothes in the country itself。 During war； this new production was not capable of being too exactly appreciated； but when peace came； it was found that all things had been made in double quantity； and the readier the mutual communication of states had become； the more embarrassed were they to dispose of all their works executed without orders。 Consumers who at the beginning had been satisfied； afterwards found themselves called to unexpected gains； because merchants； eager to recover their funds； were forced to sell a very great quantity of goods with loss。 Manufacturers gave the signal for these sacrifices； resigning themselves to a cruel loss of their capital； they induced extensive merchants to furnish themselves with goods beyond their custom or ability； in order to profit by what appeared a good opportunity。 Several of the latter have been forced to experience a similar loss； before their excessive supply could be introduced to the shops of retail dealers； and these again before they could make them be accepted by consumers。 A universal embarrassment was felt by manufacturers； merchants； and retailers； and this was followed by the annihilation of the capital destined to support industry。 The fruit of long saving and long labour was lost in a year。 Consumers have gained certainly； but their gain is scarcely perceptible even to themselves。 By laying up a stock of goods for several years to profit by their cheapness； they have also included themselves in the general embarrassment； and still farther retarded the period when the balance can be re…established between consumption and production。 According to the former organization of Europe； all states did not make pretences to all kinds of industry。 Some had attached themselves to agriculture； others to navigation； others to manufactures； and the condition of these latter； even in prosperous times； could not have appeared so worthy of envy as to demand prodigious efforts to attain it。 A miserable and degraded population almost always produced these rich stuffs； these elegant ornaments； this furniture which it was never destined to enjoy and if the men who directed these unhappy workmen sometimes raised immense fortunes； those fortunes were as frequently destroyed。 The development of nations proceeds naturally in all directions； it is scarcely ever prudent to obstruct it； but it is no less dangerous to hasten it； and the governments of Europe； by having of all hands attempted to force nations； are at the present day loaded with a population； which they have created by requiring superfluous labour； and which they know not how to save from the horrors of famine。 The existence of this manufacturing population； and the duty of providing for its wants； have constrained governments to alter the aim of their legislation。 Formerly； in the real spirit of the mercantile system； they encouraged manufactures； in order to sell much to foreigners； and grow rich at their expense； now； perceiving that a prohibitive system is every where adopted； or like to be adopted； they cannot any longer count on the custom of strangers； and therefore study to find； in their own kingdom； consumers for their own workmen； in other words； to become isolated and sufficient for themselves。 The system of policy at present； more or less strictly followed by all the nations of Europe； destroys all the adva
