political economy-第15章
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give him back all his advances； but he will plant few orchards； few high forests in the north； few vineyards in the south； he will make few canals for navigation； irrigation； or draining； he will transport little soil from one place to another； he will clear little ground； he will execute； in short； few of those works which are most conducive to the public interest； because they found the wealth of posterity。 None of those labours； on which the increase of the whole national subsistence depends； can be undertaken； save by a proprietor； rich in movable capital。 It is not the preservation of great fortunes that concerns the nation； but the union of territorial fortunes with circulating ones。 The fields do not flourish in the hands of those who have already too much wealth to watch over them； but in the hands of those who have enough of money to bring them into value。 Territorial legislation ought； therefore； without ceasing； to strive that movable capital be united with fixed； property which we call personal with property which we call real。 Legislation； over almost all the world； has striven to do quite the contrary。 And first； it were always for the national advantage； and favourable to the increase of its production； that the proprietor； whenever his fortune is embarrassed； should sell his property； instead of borrowing on it； yet； on the contrary； facilities have been held out to him for borrowing； rather than for sale。 A particular system of law has been created for territorial debts； marked differences have been established between real and personal property； the rank of creditors on land has been regulated according to their date； whilst an absolute equality prevails among creditors of all dates； who claim only on movable property。 And thus thousands of law…suits have been created； interminable difficulties have been started； and the time is almost come when half the lands of Europe are possessed by a people who far from possessing the power to dispose of a capital that might increase their productiveness； on the contrary； are debtors by a pretty large capital； which they cannot extract from those funds。 Hence those embarrassed proprietors have incessantly had recourse to ruinous expedients not to put money on their lands； but to take it off； to borrow of their farmers； to diminish the funds of cultivation； to sell their woods； and deteriorate their estates。 If the law had given no preference to territorial creditors； if； on the other hand it had given as much facility to a creditor for selling an immovable property； as for making seizure of a movable one； especially； if； in protecting personal liberty； sacrificed too slightly； it had permitted lands to be sold as often as it now permits the debtor to be put in prison … most old debts would be extinguished； and those immovable possessions； which ought to support the nation； would be in the hands of such as could force them； by capital and labour； to furnish the means of subsistence。 But the props lent to the pride of family by entails； fideicommissa； primogenitures； and the laws invented to hinder families in a ruinous condition from selling their property； have still further impeded the development of agriculture and industry。 The legislator aimed at fixing fortune in great families： he has fixed beggary and want in them。 On pretext of securing the patrimony of children； he has forbidden the heir of entail to sell or borrow with a sufficient security to his creditors； but he could not hinder him from going to ruin； and overwhelming himself with clamorous debts。 In that case； even the care of his honour； the feeling of justice； and his own security； oblige him to employ all the resources of his mind； all his industry in destroying his patrimony； that he may obtain the disposal of what law has reserved to his heir。 Whatever produce he can detach from the ground without replacing it； whatever advance he can dispense with laying out； is； in his eyes； just so much profit； and Europe has come to see the proprietors of noble estates； almost everywhere； the enemies of their property。 At the same time； if the legislator's object was the preservation of families； he has failed in this object； because entails condemn all the sons of a rich family to idleness； the elder out of pride； the younger out of inability。 The system has proscribed all from industry； the sole mean of increasing property； whilst it leaves them subject to all human chances； which never cease to attack whatever is ancient； and which must always； in the end； destroy whatever opulence is not renewed。
Chapter 4
Of Commercial Wealth
By labour man drew his first wealth from the earth； but scarcely had he satisfied his primitive wants； when desire made him conceive other enjoyments； not to be obtained without the aid of his fellows。 Exchanges began。 They extended to whatever had any value； to whatever could produce any； they comprised mutual services and labour； no less than the fruit of labour； and gave room to the formation and increase of a new kind of wealth； which was no longer measured by the wants of him who produced it； but by the wants of all those with whom he might transact exchanges； … with whom he might carry on commerce； and hence we have named it commercial wealth。 The solitary man was used to labour for his own wants； and his consumption was the measure of his production； he fitted out a place to produce him provisions for a year； for two years perhaps； but afterwards he did not indefinitely augment it。 It was enough to renew the process； so as to maintain himself in the same condition； and； if he had time to spare； he laboured at acquiring some new enjoyment； at satisfying some other fancy。 Society has never done any thing by commerce； except sharing among all its members what the isolated man would have prepared solely for himself。 Each labours； in like manner； to provide for all； during a year； two years； or more； each labours； afterwards； to keep up this provision； according as consumption destroys a part of it； and since the division of labour and the improvement of arts allow more and more work to be done； each； perceiving that he has already provided for the reproduction of what has been consumed； studies to awaken new tastes and new fancies which he may satisfy。 But when a man laboured for himself alone； he never dreamt of those fancies； till he had provided for his wants； his time was his revenue； his time formed also his whole means of production。 There was no room to fear； that the one would not be exactly proportioned to the other； that he would ever work to satisfy an inclination that he did not feel； or which he valued less than a want。 But when trade was introduced； and each no longer laboured for himself； but for an unknown person； the different proportions subsisting between the desire and what could satisfy it； between the labour and the revenue； between production and consumption； were no longer equally certain； they were independent of each other； and every workman was obliged to regulate his conduct by guessing on a subject； concerning which the most skilful had nothing but conjectural information。 The isolated man's knowledge of his own means and his own wants； required to be replaced by a knowledge of the market； for which the social man was labouring； of its demands and its extent。 The number of consumers； their tastes； the extent of their consumption； and their income； regulate the market for which every producer labours。 Each of these four elements is variable； independently of the rest； and each of their variations accelerates or retards the sale。 The number of consumers may decrease； not only by sickness or war； but also by obstacles which policy may place in the way of their communication； or by the avarice of new sellers。 Their tastes may be changed by fashion： an extraordinary consumption of one kind of merchandize； brought about by some public calamity； may have reduced them to be frugal in all the rest； and finally； their income may diminish without a diminution of their number； and with the same wants； the same means of satisfying them may no longer exist。 Such revolutions in the market are difficult to know with precision； difficult to
