political economy-第14章
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ir condition is improving in France； they are gathering strength； and without abandoning manual labour； they enjoy a kind of affluence； they unfold their minds； and adopt； though slowly； the discoveries of science。 But in France； the peasants are mostly proprietors： the number of those who cultivate their own lands prodigiously increased in the revolution； and to this cause must be attributed the rapid progress which agriculture is making in that country； in spite of a long war and heavy contributions。 Perhaps England might partly obtain a similar advantage； if these vast commons were shared among her cottagers； to whom the charm of property would thus be restored。 The most industrious provinces of France are； at this time； experiencing the unlooked … for effects of dividing property among its true cultivators； we mean the distribution of great farms among the contiguous peasantry； by a great number or particular contacts。 A large proprietor now rarely gives his farm to be cultivated by a single person； he finds it infinitely more advantageous； at present； to share his domain among a number of neighbouring peasants； each of whom takes as much land as is requisite to occupy him all the year。 No doubt； the peasant will generally sacrifice the land which he farms； to that which is his property； but both those portions are cultivated with the ardour which a direct interest excites in the labourer and with the intelligence which is developed in him； now that his lord can no longer oppress him。 The agricultural classes are as happy as the political circumstances of a country； loved with enthusiasm； permit them to be。 To conclude our review of the systems； by which territorial wealth is incessantly renewed； we ought yet to bestow a moment of attention on the system of emphyteuses or perpetual farms； the most suitable of all when government has grants of land to make。 In other systems of cultivation； the agriculturist acquires all the fruit of his annual advances； but he can never be sure of profiting from those irredeemable advances by which a perpetual value is added to land； from drainings； plantations； and breaking up of the soil。 Proprietors； of themselves； are seldom enabled to make such advances。 If they sell the land； the purchaser； in order to acquire it； must surrender that very capital； with which he might have made those improvements。 The lease of emphyteusis or plantation； which is the proper meaning of the word； was thus a very useful invention； as by it the cultivator engaged to break up a desert； on condition of acquiring the dominium utile of it for ever； whilst the proprietor reserved for himself an invariable rent to represent the dominium directum。 No expedient could more happily combine； in the same individual； affection for property； with zeal for cultivation； or more usefully employ； in improving land； the capital destined to break it up。 Although this kind of lease is known in England under the name of freehold for many lives； and though it is even of great importance in this kingdom； as the right of voting in county elections depends upon it； its beneficial influence has chiefly been experienced in Italy； where it is named livello。 In the latter country； it has restored to the most brilliant state of cultivation whole provinces； which had been allowed to run waste。 It cannot； however； become a universal mode of cultivation； because it deprives the direct proprietor of all the enjoyment of property； exposing him to all the inconveniences； with none of the advantages； in the condition of the capitalist； and because the father of a family can never be looked upon as prudent or economical； when he thus alienates his property for ever； without at least retaining the disposal of the price to be received in exchange for it。 For re…producing territorial wealth； it is sufficient； in general； that the use of the ground be transmitted to the industrious man； who may turn it to advantage； whilst the property of it continues with the rich man； who has no longer the same incitements or the same fitness for labour； and who thinks only of enjoyment。 The national interest； however。 sometimes also requires that property itself shall pass into hands likely to make a better use of it。 It is not for themselves alone that the rich elicit the fruits of the earth； it is for the whole nation； and if； by a derangement in their fortune； they suspend the productive power of the country； it concerns the whole nation to put their property under different managers。 Personal interest is； indeed； sufficient to bring about this transmission； provided the law offers no obstacle。 When a soldier comes to inherit a machine for making stockings； he does not keep it long； in his hands； the machine is useless for himself and the nation； in the hands of a stocking…maker it would be productive； both for the nation and the individual。 Both feel this； and a bargain is soon struck。 The soldier receives money； which he well knows how to employ； the stocking…maker receives possession of his frame； and production recommences。 Most of our European laws respecting immovable property； are like a law made to hinder the soldier from parting with the frame； of whose use he is ignorant。 The value of land cannot be unfolded； except by employing a capital sufficient to procure the accumulation of that labour which improves it。 Hence； it is essential to the very existence of a nation that its land be always in the hands of those who can devote capital to its cultivation。 If it were not in any case allowed to sell a workman's implement； it would not； certainly； at least； be forbidden to make new ones for the use of new workmen； but new lands cannot be made； and so often as the law prevents the alienation of an estate by one that cannot use it； so often does it suspend the most essential of all productions。 The systems of cultivation； which we have now glanced over in review； certainly cause the earth to produce； by the hands of temporary cultivators； when the permanent advances have been made； but they absolutely discourage such cultivators from making those permanent advances which； as they give a perpetual value to property； cannot be laid out except by those with whom that property is destined to continue。 Legislators in general； altogether occupied with preventing the alienation of immovables； and preserving great fortunes in great families； have dreaded lest such an alienation might clandestinely be brought about by a lease； for a long term； and without return。 They have eagerly attempted to defend the rights of proprietors against proprietors themselves； they have guided that class of people by forfeits and resolutory clauses； they have fixed upon a short term for farm leases； they seem continually repeating to the cultivator： 〃This land； on which you work； is not yours； acquire not too much affection for it； make no advances which you might run the risk of losing； improve the present moment； if you can； but think not of the future； above all； beware of labouring for posterity。〃 Besides； independently of legislative errors； it belongs to the very nature of a farm lease never to allow the farmer to take as much interest in the land as its proprietor。 It is enough that this lease must have an end； to induce the farmer； as this end approaches； to care less about his fields； and to cease laying out money for improving them。 The metayer； with smaller power； at least never fears to improve the land committed to him as much as possible； because the conditions of his lease are invariable； and he is never dismissed except for bad behaviour。 The farmer； again； is liable to be dismissed directly in consequence of his good management。 The more he has improved his farm； the more will his landlord； at renewing the lease； be disposed to require an augmentation of rent； and； besides； as part nf the advances laid out by the cultivator； on the ground； create a perpetual value； it is neither just nor natural that they should be made by one whose interest is merely temporary。 The farmer will carefully attend to the fields and meadows； which； in a few years； are to give him back all his advances； but he will plant few orchards； few high forests in the north； few v
