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第8章

poetics-第8章

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as in the noun; no part is in itself significant。 For 'man' or 'white'



does not express the idea of 'when'; but 'he walks' or 'he has walked'



does connote time; present or past。



  Inflection belongs both to the noun and verb; and expresses either



the relation 'of;' 'to;' or the like; or that of number; whether one



or many; as 'man' or 'men'; or the modes or tones in actual



delivery; e。g。; a question or a command。 'Did he go?' and 'go' are



verbal inflections of this kind。



  A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant sound; some at least



of whose parts are in themselves significant; for not every such group



of words consists of verbs and nouns… 'the definition of man;' for



example… but it may dispense even with the verb。 Still it will



always have some significant part; as 'in walking;' or 'Cleon son of



Cleon。' A sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways… either as



signifying one thing; or as consisting of several parts linked



together。 Thus the Iliad is one by the linking together of parts;



the definition of man by the unity of the thing signified。



POETICS|21



  XXI







  Words are of two kinds; simple and double。 By simple I mean those



composed of nonsignificant elements; such as ge; 'earth。' By double or



compound; those composed either of a significant and nonsignificant



element (though within the whole word no element is significant); or



of elements that are both significant。 A word may likewise be



triple; quadruple; or multiple in form; like so many Massilian



expressions; e。g。; 'Hermo…caico…xanthus 'who prayed to Father Zeus'。'



  Every word is either current; or strange; or metaphorical; or



ornamental; or newly…coined; or lengthened; or contracted; or altered。



  By a current or proper word I mean one which is in general use among



a people; by a strange word; one which is in use in another country。



Plainly; therefore; the same word may be at once strange and



current; but not in relation to the same people。 The word sigynon;



'lance;' is to the Cyprians a current term but to us a strange one。



  Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference



either from genus to species; or from species to genus; or from



species to species; or by analogy; that is; proportion。 Thus from



genus to species; as: 'There lies my ship'; for lying at anchor is a



species of lying。 From species to genus; as: 'Verily ten thousand



noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought'; for ten thousand is a species of



large number; and is here used for a large number generally。 From



species to species; as: 'With blade of bronze drew away the life;' and



'Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding bronze。' Here arusai;



'to draw away' is used for tamein; 'to cleave;' and tamein; again



for arusai… each being a species of taking away。 Analogy or proportion



is when the second term is to the first as the fourth to the third。 We



may then use the fourth for the second; or the second for the



fourth。 Sometimes too we qualify the metaphor by adding the term to



which the proper word is relative。 Thus the cup is to Dionysus as



the shield to Ares。 The cup may; therefore; be called 'the shield of



Dionysus;' and the shield 'the cup of Ares。' Or; again; as old age



is to life; so is evening to day。 Evening may therefore be called;



'the old age of the day;' and old age; 'the evening of life;' or; in



the phrase of Empedocles; 'life's setting sun。' For some of the



terms of the proportion there is at times no word in existence;



still the metaphor may be used。 For instance; to scatter seed is



called sowing: but the action of the sun in scattering his rays is



nameless。 Still this process bears to the sun the same relation as



sowing to the seed。 Hence the expression of the poet 'sowing the



god…created light。' There is another way in which this kind of



metaphor may be employed。 We may apply an alien term; and then deny of



that term one of its proper attributes; as if we were to call the



shield; not 'the cup of Ares;' but 'the wineless cup'。



  A newly…coined word is one which has never been even in local use;



but is adopted by the poet himself。 Some such words there appear to



be: as ernyges; 'sprouters;' for kerata; 'horns'; and areter;



'supplicator'; for hiereus; 'priest。'



  A word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged for a longer



one; or when a syllable is inserted。 A word is contracted when some



part of it is removed。 Instances of lengthening are: poleos for



poleos; Peleiadeo for Peleidou; of contraction: kri; do; and ops; as



in mia ginetai amphoteron ops; 'the appearance of both is one。'



  An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary form is left



unchanged; and part is recast: as in dexiteron kata mazon; 'on the



right breast;' dexiteron is for dexion。



  Nouns in themselves are either masculine; feminine; or neuter。



Masculine are such as end in N; R; S; or in some letter compounded



with S… these being two; PS and X。 Feminine; such as end in vowels



that are always long; namely E and O; and… of vowels that admit of



lengthening… those in A。 Thus the number of letters in which nouns



masculine and feminine end is the same; for PS and X are equivalent to



endings in S。 No noun ends in a mute or a vowel short by nature。 Three



only end in I… meli; 'honey'; kommi; 'gum'; peperi; 'pepper'; five end



in U。 Neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels; also in N and S。



POETICS|22



  XXII







  The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean。 The



clearest style is that which uses only current or proper words; at the



same time it is mean… witness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus。



That diction; on the other hand; is lofty and raised above the



commonplace which employs unusual words。 By unusual; I mean strange



(or rare) words; metaphorical; lengthened… anything; in short; that



differs from the normal idiom。 Yet a style wholly composed of such



words is either a riddle or a jargon; a riddle; if it consists of



metaphors; a jargon; if it consists of strange (or rare) words。 For



the essence of a riddle is to express true facts under impossible



combinations。 Now this cannot be done  by any arrangement of



ordinary words; but by the use of metaphor it can。 Such is the riddle:



'A man I saw who on another man had glued the bronze by aid of



fire;' and others of the same kind。 A diction that is made up of



strange (or rare) terms is a jargon。 A certain infusion; therefore; of



these elements is necessary to style; for the strange (or rare)



word; the metaphorical; the ornamental; and the other kinds above



mentioned; will raise it above the commonplace and mean; while the use



of proper words will make it perspicuous。 But nothing contributes more



to produce a cleanness of diction that is remote from commonness



than the lengthening; contraction; and alteration of words。 For by



deviating in exceptional cases from the normal idiom; the language



will gain distinction; while; at the same time; the partial conformity



with usage will give perspicuity。 The critics; therefore; are in error



who censure these licenses of speech; and hold the author up to



ridicule。 Thus Eucleides; the elder; declared that it would be an easy



matter to be a poet if you might lengthen syllables at will。 He



caricatured the practice in the very form of his diction; as in the



verse:







     Epicharen eidon Marathonade badizonta;



     I saw Epichares walking to Marathon;







or;







     ouk an g'eramenos ton ekeinou elleboron。



     Not if you desire his hellebore。







To employ such license at all obtrusively is; no doubt; grotesque; but



in any mode of poetic diction there must be moderation。 Even



metaphors; strange (or rare) words; or any similar forms of speech;



would produce the like effect if used with

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