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                                    POETICS



                                  by Aristotle



                          Translated by S。 H。 Butcher



POETICS|1



  I







  I PROPOSE to treat of Poetry in itself and of its various kinds;



noting the essential quality of each; to inquire into the structure of



the plot as requisite to a good poem; into the number and nature of



the parts of which a poem is composed; and similarly into whatever



else falls within the same inquiry。 Following; then; the order of



nature; let us begin with the principles which come first。



  Epic poetry and Tragedy; Comedy also and Dithyrambic poetry; and the



music of the flute and of the lyre in most of their forms; are all



in their general conception modes of imitation。 They differ;



however; from one another in three respects… the medium; the



objects; the manner or mode of imitation; being in each case distinct。



  For as there are persons who; by conscious art or mere habit;



imitate and represent various objects through the medium of color



and form; or again by the voice; so in the arts above mentioned; taken



as a whole; the imitation is produced by rhythm; language; or



'harmony;' either singly or combined。



  Thus in the music of the flute and of the lyre; 'harmony' and rhythm



alone are employed; also in other arts; such as that of the shepherd's



pipe; which are essentially similar to these。 In dancing; rhythm alone



is used without 'harmony'; for even dancing imitates character;



emotion; and action; by rhythmical movement。



  There is another art which imitates by means of language alone;



and that either in prose or verse… which verse; again; may either



combine different meters or consist of but one kind… but this has



hitherto been without a name。 For there is no common term we could



apply to the mimes of Sophron and Xenarchus and the Socratic dialogues



on the one hand; and; on the other; to poetic imitations in iambic;



elegiac; or any similar meter。 People do; indeed; add the word 'maker'



or 'poet' to the name of the meter; and speak of elegiac poets; or



epic (that is; hexameter) poets; as if it were not the imitation



that makes the poet; but the verse that entitles them all to the name。



Even when a treatise on medicine or natural science is brought out



in verse; the name of poet is by custom given to the author; and yet



Homer and Empedocles have nothing in common but the meter; so that



it would be right to call the one poet; the other physicist rather



than poet。 On the same principle; even if a writer in his poetic



imitation were to combine all meters; as Chaeremon did in his Centaur;



which is a medley composed of meters of all kinds; we should bring him



too under the general term poet。



  So much then for these distinctions。



  There are; again; some arts which employ all the means above



mentioned… namely; rhythm; tune; and meter。 Such are Dithyrambic and



Nomic poetry; and also Tragedy and Comedy; but between them originally



the difference is; that in the first two cases these means are all



employed in combination; in the latter; now one means is employed; now



another。



  Such; then; are the differences of the arts with respect to the



medium of imitation



POETICS|2



  II







  Since the objects of imitation are men in action; and these men must



be either of a higher or a lower type (for moral character mainly



answers to these divisions; goodness and badness being the



distinguishing marks of moral differences); it follows that we must



represent men either as better than in real life; or as worse; or as



they are。 It is the same in painting。 Polygnotus depicted men as



nobler than they are; Pauson as less noble; Dionysius drew them true



to life。



  Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation above



mentioned will exhibit these differences; and become a distinct kind



in imitating objects that are thus distinct。 Such diversities may be



found even in dancing; flute…playing; and lyre…playing。 So again in



language; whether prose or verse unaccompanied by music。 Homer; for



example; makes men better than they are; Cleophon as they are; Hegemon



the Thasian; the inventor of parodies; and Nicochares; the author of



the Deiliad; worse than they are。 The same thing holds good of



Dithyrambs and Nomes; here too one may portray different types; as



Timotheus and Philoxenus differed in representing their Cyclopes。



The same distinction marks off Tragedy from Comedy; for Comedy aims at



representing men as worse; Tragedy as better than in actual life。



POETICS|3



  III







  There is still a third difference… the manner in which each of these



objects may be imitated。 For the medium being the same; and the



objects the same; the poet may imitate by narration… in which case



he can either take another personality as Homer does; or speak in



his own person; unchanged… or he may present all his characters as



living and moving before us。



  These; then; as we said at the beginning; are the three



differences which distinguish artistic imitation… the medium; the



objects; and the manner。 So that from one point of view; Sophocles



is an imitator of the same kind as Homer… for both imitate higher



types of character; from another point of view; of the same kind as



Aristophanes… for both imitate persons acting and doing。 Hence; some



say; the name of 'drama' is given to such poems; as representing



action。 For the same reason the Dorians claim the invention both of



Tragedy and Comedy。 The claim to Comedy is put forward by the



Megarians… not only by those of Greece proper; who allege that it



originated under their democracy; but also by the Megarians of Sicily;



for the poet Epicharmus; who is much earlier than Chionides and



Magnes; belonged to that country。 Tragedy too is claimed by certain



Dorians of the Peloponnese。 In each case they appeal to the evidence



of language。 The outlying villages; they say; are by them called



komai; by the Athenians demoi: and they assume that comedians were



so named not from komazein; 'to revel;' but because they wandered from



village to village (kata komas); being excluded contemptuously from



the city。 They add also that the Dorian word for 'doing' is dran;



and the Athenian; prattein。



  This may suffice as to the number and nature of the various modes of



imitation。



POETICS|4



  IV







  Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes; each of them



lying deep in our nature。 First; the instinct of imitation is



implanted in man from childhood; one difference between him and



other animals being that he is the most imitative of living creatures;



and through imitation learns his earliest lessons; and no less



universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated。 We have evidence of



this in the facts of experience。 Objects which in themselves we view



with pain; we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute



fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead



bodies。 The cause of this again is; that to learn gives the



liveliest pleasure; not only to philosophers but to men in general;



whose capacity; however; of learning is more limited。 Thus the



reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is; that in contemplating it



they find themselves learning or inferring; and saying perhaps; 'Ah;



that is he。' For if you happen not to have seen the original; the



pleasure will be due not to the imitation as such; but to the



execution; the coloring; or some such other cause。



  Imitation; then; is one instinct of our nature。 Next; there is the



instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm; meters being manifestly sections of



rhythm。 Persons; therefore; starting with this natural gift



developed by degrees their special aptitudes; till their rude



improvisa

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