on liberty-第31章

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pain　or　loss　to　others；　or　intercepts　a　good　which　they　had　a



reasonable　hope　of　obtaining。　Such　oppositions　of　interest　between



individuals　often　arise　from　bad　social　institutions；　but　are



unavoidable　while　those　institutions　last；　and　some　would　be



unavoidable　under　any　institutions。　Whoever　succeeds　in　an　overcrowded



profession；　or　in　a　competitive　examination；　whoever　is　preferred　to



another　in　any　contest　for　an　object　which　both　desire；　reaps



benefit　from　the　loss　of　others；　from　their　wasted　exertion　and



their　disappointment。　But　it　is；　by　common　admission；　better　for　the



general　interest　of　mankind；　that　persons　should　pursue　their



objects　undeterred　by　this　sort　of　consequences。　In　other　words；



society　admits　no　right；　either　legal　or　moral；　in　the　disappointed



competitors　to　immunity　from　this　kind　of　suffering；　and　feels



called　on　to　interfere；　only　when　means　of　success　have　been



employed　which　it　is　contrary　to　the　general　interest　to



permit…　namely；　fraud　or　treachery；　and　force。



　　Again；　trade　is　a　social　act。　Whoever　undertakes　to　sell　any



description　of　goods　to　the　public；　does　what　affects　the　interest



of　other　persons；　and　of　society　in　general；　and　thus　his　conduct；



in　principle；　comes　within　the　jurisdiction　of　society：　accordingly；



it　was　once　held　to　be　the　duty　of　governments；　in　all　cases　which



were　considered　of　importance；　to　fix　prices；　and　regulate　the



processes　of　manufacture。　But　it　is　now　recognised；　though　not　till



after　a　long　struggle；　that　both　the　cheapness　and　the　good　quality　of



commodities　are　most　effectually　provided　for　by　leaving　the　producers



and　sellers　perfectly　free；　under　the　sole　check　of　equal　freedom　to



the　buyers　for　supplying　themselves　elsewhere。　This　is　the　so…called



doctrine　of　Free　Trade；　which　rests　on　grounds　different　from；



though　equally　solid　with；　the　principle　of　individual　liberty



asserted　in　this　Essay。　Restrictions　on　trade；　or　on　production　for



purposes　of　trade；　are　indeed　restraints；　and　all　restraint；　qua



restraint；　is　an　evil：　but　the　restraints　in　question　affect　only　that



part　of　conduct　which　society　is　competent　to　restrain；　and　are



wrong　solely　because　they　do　not　really　produce　the　results　which　it



is　desired　to　produce　by　them。　As　the　principle　of　individual



liberty　is　not　involved　in　the　doctrine　of　Free　Trade；　so　neither　is



it　in　most　of　the　questions　which　arise　respecting　the　limits　of



that　doctrine；　as；　for　example；　what　amount　of　public　control　is



admissible　for　the　prevention　of　fraud　by　adulteration；　how　far



sanitary　precautions；　or　arrangements　to　protect　workpeople　employed



in　dangerous　occupations；　should　be　enforced　on　employers。　Such



questions　involve　considerations　of　liberty；　only　in　so　far　as　leaving



people　to　themselves　is　always　better；　caeteris　paribus；　than



controlling　them：　but　that　they　may　be　legitimately　controlled　for



these　ends　is　in　principle　undeniable。　On　the　other　hand；　there　are



questions　relating　to　interference　with　trade　which　are　essentially



questions　of　liberty；　such　as　the　Maine　Law；　already　touched　upon；　the



prohibition　of　the　importation　of　opium　into　China；　the　restriction　of



the　sale　of　poisons；　all　cases；　in　short；　where　the　object　of　the



interference　is　to　make　it　impossible　or　difficult　to　obtain　a



particular　commodity。　These　interferences　are　objectionable；　not　as



infringements　on　the　liberty　of　the　producer　or　seller；　but　on　that　of



the　buyer。



　　One　of　these　examples；　that　of　the　sale　of　poisons；　opens　a　new



question；　the　proper　limits　of　what　may　be　called　the　functions　of



police；　how　far　liberty　may　legitimately　be　invaded　for　the　prevention



of　crime；　or　of　accident。　It　is　one　of　the　undisputed　functions　of



government　to　take　precautions　against　crime　before　it　has　been



committed；　as　well　as　to　detect　and　punish　it　afterwards。　The



preventive　function　of　government；　however；　is　far　more　liable　to　be



abused；　to　the　prejudice　of　liberty；　than　the　punitory　function；…　for



there　is　hardly　any　part　of　the　legitimate　freedom　of　action　of　a



human　being　which　would　not　admit　of　being　represented；　and　fairly



too；　as　increasing　the　facilities　for　some　form　or　other　of



delinquency。　Nevertheless；　if　a　public　authority；　or　even　a　private



person；　sees　any　one　evidently　preparing　to　commit　a　crime；　they　are



not　bound　to　look　on　inactive　until　the　crime　is　committed；　but　may



interfere　to　prevent　it。　If　poisons　were　never　bought　or　used　for



any　purpose　except　the　commission　of　murder　it　would　be　right　to



prohibit　their　manufacture　and　sale。　They　may；　however；　be　wanted



not　only　for　innocent　but　for　useful　purposes；　and　restrictions　cannot



be　imposed　in　the　one　case　without　operating　in　the　other。　Again；　it



is　a　proper　office　of　public　authority　to　guard　against　accidents。



If　either　a　public　officer　or　any　one　else　saw　a　person　attempting



to　cross　a　bridge　which　had　been　ascertained　to　be　unsafe；　and　there



were　no　time　to　warn　him　of　his　danger；　they　might　seize　him　and



turn　him　back；　without　any　real　infringement　of　his　liberty；　for



liberty　consists　in　doing　what　one　desires；　and　he　does　not　desire



to　fall　into　the　river。　Nevertheless；　when　there　is　not　a　certainty；



but　only　a　danger　of　mischief；　no　one　but　the　person　himself　can　judge



of　the　sufficiency　of　the　motive　which　may　prompt　him　to　incur　the



risk：　in　this　case；　therefore　（unless　he　is　a　child；　or　delirious；



or　in　some　state　of　excitement　or　absorption　incompatible　with　the



full　use　of　the　reflecting　faculty）；　he　ought；　I　conceive；　to　be



only　warned　of　the　danger；　not　forcibly　prevented　from　exposing



himself　to　it。　Similar　considerations；　applied　to　such　a　question　as



the　sale　of　poisons；　may　enable　us　to　decide　which　among　the



possible　modes　of　regulation　are　or　are　not　contrary　to　principle。



Such　a　precaution；　for　example；　as　that　of　labelling　the　drug　with



some　word　expressive　of　its　dangerous　character；　may　be　enforced



without　violation　of　liberty：　the　buyer　cannot　wish　not　to　know　that



the　thing　he　possesses　has　poisonous　qualities。　But　to　require　in



all　cases　the　certificate　of　a　medical　practitioner　would　make　it



sometimes　impossible；　always　expensive；　to　obtain　the　article　for



legitimate　uses。



　　The　only　mode　apparent　to　me；　in　which　difficulties　may　be　thrown　in



the　way　of　crime　committed　through　this　means；　without　any



infringement　worth　taking　into　account　upon　the　liberty　of　those　who



desire　the　poisonous　substance　for　other　purposes；　consists　in



providing　what；　in　the　apt　language　of　Bentham；　is　called



〃preappointed　evidence。〃　This　provision　is　familiar　to　every　one　in



the　case　of　contracts。　It　is　usual　and　right　that　the　law；　when　a



contract　is　entered　into；　should　require　as　the　condition　of　its



enforcing　performance；　that　certain　formalities　should　be　observed；



such　as　signatures；　attestation　of　witnesses；　and　the　like；　in　order



that　in　case　of　subsequent　dispute　there　may　be　evidence　to　prove　that



the　contract　was　really　entered　into；　and　that　there　was　nothing　in



the　circumstances　to　render　it　legally　invalid：　the　effect　being　to



throw　great　obstacles　in　the　way　of　fictitious　contracts；　or　contracts



made　in　circumstances　which；　if　known；　would　destroy　their　validity。



Precautions　of　a　similar　nature　might　be　enforced　in　the　sale　of



articles　adapted　to　be　instruments　of　crime。　The　seller；　for



example；　might　be　required　to　enter　in　a　register　the　exact　time　of



the　transaction；　the　name　and　address　of　the　buyer；　the　precise



quality　and　quantity　sold；　to　ask　the　purpose　for　which　it　was　wanted；



and　record　the　answer　he　received。　When　there　was　no　medical



prescription；　the　presence　of　some　third　person　might　be　required；



to　bring　home　the　fact　to　the　purchaser；　in　case　there　sho