on liberty-第18章

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almost　exclusively　to　received　opinions。　The　worst　offence　of　this



kind　which　can　be　committed　by　a　polemic　is　to　stigmatise　those　who



hold　the　contrary　opinion　as　bad　and　immoral　men。　To　calumny　of　this



sort；　those　who　hold　any　unpopular　opinion　are　peculiarly　exposed；



because　they　are　in　general　few　and　uninfluential；　and　nobody　but



themselves　feels　much　interested　in　seeing　justice　done　them；　but　this



weapon　is；　from　the　nature　of　the　case；　denied　to　those　who　attack　a



prevailing　opinion：　they　can　neither　use　it　with　safety　to　themselves；



nor；　if　they　could；　would　it　do　anything　but　recoil　on　their　own



cause。　In　general；　opinions　contrary　to　those　commonly　received　can



only　obtain　a　hearing　by　studied　moderation　of　language；　and　the



most　cautious　avoidance　of　unnecessary　offence；　from　which　they　hardly



ever　deviate　even　in　a　slight　degree　without　losing　ground：　while



unmeasured　vituperation　employed　on　the　side　of　the　prevailing　opinion



really　does　deter　people　from　professing　contrary　opinions；　and　from



listening　to　those　who　profess　them。



　　For　the　interest；　therefore；　of　truth　and　justice；　it　is　far　more



important　to　restrain　this　employment　of　vituperative　language　than



the　other；　and；　for　example；　if　it　were　necessary　to　choose；　there



would　be　much　more　need　to　discourage　offensive　attacks　on



infidelity　than　on　religion。　It　is；　however；　obvious　that　law　and



authority　have　no　business　with　restraining　either；　while　opinion



ought；　in　every　instance；　to　determine　its　verdict　by　the



circumstances　of　the　individual　case；　condemning　every　one；　on



whichever　side　of　the　argument　he　places　himself；　in　whose　mode　of



advocacy　either　want　of　candour；　or　malignity；　bigotry；　or　intolerance



of　feeling　manifest　themselves；　but　not　inferring　these　vices　from　the



side　which　a　person　takes；　though　it　be　the　contrary　side　of　the



question　to　our　own；　and　giving　merited　honour　to　every　one；



whatever　opinion　he　may　hold；　who　has　calmness　to　see　and　honesty　to



state　what　his　opponents　and　their　opinions　really　are；　exaggerating



nothing　to　their　discredit；　keeping　nothing　back　which　tells；　or　can



be　supposed　to　tell；　in　their　favour。　This　is　the　real　morality　of



public　discussion：　and　if　often　violated；　I　am　happy　to　think　that



there　are　many　controversialists　who　to　a　great　extent　observe　it；　and



a　still　greater　number　who　conscientiously　strive　towards　it。



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Chapter　3。



　　　　　　　　Of　Individuality；　as　one　of　the　Elements　of　Well…being。







　　SUCH　BEING　the　reasons　which　make　it　imperative　that　human　beings



should　be　free　to　form　opinions；　and　to　express　their　opinions　without



reserve；　and　such　the　baneful　consequences　to　the　intellectual；　and



through　that　to　the　moral　nature　of　man；　unless　this　liberty　is　either



conceded；　or　asserted　in　spite　of　prohibition；　let　us　next　examine



whether　the　same　reasons　do　not　require　that　men　should　be　free　to　act



upon　their　opinions…　to　carry　these　out　in　their　lives；　without



hindrance；　either　physical　or　moral；　from　their　fellow…men；　so　long　as



it　is　at　their　own　risk　and　peril。



　　This　last　proviso　is　of　course　indispensable。　No　one　pretends　that



actions　should　be　as　free　as　opinions。　On　the　contrary；　even



opinions　lose　their　immunity　when　the　circumstances　in　which　they



are　expressed　are　such　as　to　constitute　their　expression　a　positive



instigation　to　some　mischievous　act。　An　opinion　that　corn…dealers



are　starvers　of　the　poor；　or　that　private　property　is　robbery；　ought



to　be　unmolested　when　simply　circulated　through　the　press；　but　may



justly　incur　punishment　when　delivered　orally　to　an　excited　mob



assembled　before　the　house　of　a　corn…dealer；　or　when　handed　about



among　the　same　mob　in　the　form　of　a　placard。　Acts；　of　whatever　kind；



which；　without　justifiable　cause；　do　harm　to　others；　may　be；　and　in



the　more　important　cases　absolutely　require　to　be；　controlled　by　the



unfavourable　sentiments；　and；　when　needful；　by　the　active　interference



of　mankind。　The　liberty　of　the　individual　must　be　thus　far　limited；　he



must　not　make　himself　a　nuisance　to　other　people。　But　if　he　refrains



from　molesting　others　in　what　concerns　them；　and　merely　acts　according



to　his　own　inclination　and　judgment　in　things　which　concern　himself；



the　same　reasons　which　show　that　opinion　should　be　free；　prove　also



that　he　should　be　allowed；　without　molestation；　to　carry　his



opinions　into　practice　at　his　own　cost。　That　mankind　are　not



infallible；　that　their　truths；　for　the　most　part；　are　only



half…truths；　that　unity　of　opinion；　unless　resulting　from　the



fullest　and　freest　comparison　of　opposite　opinions；　is　not



desirable；　and　diversity　not　an　evil；　but　a　good；　until　mankind　are



much　more　capable　than　at　present　of　recognising　all　sides　of　the



truth；　are　principles　applicable　to　men's　modes　of　action；　not　less



than　to　their　opinions。　As　it　is　useful　that　while　mankind　are



imperfect　there　should　be　different　opinions；　so　it　is　that　there



should　be　different　experiments　of　living；　that　free　scope　should　be



given　to　varieties　of　character；　short　of　injury　to　others；　and　that



the　worth　of　different　modes　of　life　should　be　proved　practically；



when　any　one　thinks　fit　to　try　them。　It　is　desirable；　in　short；　that



in　things　which　do　not　primarily　concern　others；　individuality



should　assert　itself。　Where；　not　the　person's　own　character；　but　the



traditions　or　customs　of　other　people　are　the　rule　of　conduct；　there



is　wanting　one　of　the　principal　ingredients　of　human　happiness；　and



quite　the　chief　ingredient　of　individual　and　social　progress。



　　In　maintaining　this　principle；　the　greatest　difficulty　to　be



encountered　does　not　lie　in　the　appreciation　of　means　towards　an



acknowledged　end；　but　in　the　indifference　of　persons　in　general　to　the



end　itself。　If　it　were　felt　that　the　free　development　of　individuality



is　one　of　the　leading　essentials　of　well…being；　that　it　is　not　only



a　co…ordinate　element　with　all　that　is　designated　by　the　terms



civilisation；　instruction；　education；　culture；　but　is　itself　a



necessary　part　and　condition　of　all　those　things；　there　would　be　no



danger　that　liberty　should　be　undervalued；　and　the　adjustment　of　the



boundaries　between　it　and　social　control　would　present　no



extraordinary　difficulty。　But　the　evil　is；　that　individual　spontaneity



is　hardly　recognised　by　the　common　modes　of　thinking　as　having　any



intrinsic　worth；　or　deserving　any　regard　on　its　own　account。　The



majority；　being　satisfied　with　the　ways　of　mankind　as　they　now　are



（for　it　is　they　who　make　them　what　they　are）；　cannot　comprehend　why



those　ways　should　not　be　good　enough　for　everybody；　and　what　is



more；　spontaneity　forms　no　part　of　the　ideal　of　the　majority　of



moral　and　social　reformers；　but　is　rather　looked　on　with　jealousy；



as　a　troublesome　and　perhaps　rebellious　obstruction　to　the　general



acceptance　of　what　these　reformers；　in　their　own　judgment；　think　would



be　best　for　mankind。　Few　persons；　out　of　Germany；　even　comprehend



the　meaning　of　the　doctrine　which　Wilhelm　von　Humboldt；　so　eminent



both　as　a　savant　and　as　a　politician；　made　the　text　of　a　treatise…



that　〃the　end　of　man；　or　that　which　is　prescribed　by　the　eternal　or



immutable　dictates　of　reason；　and　not　suggested　by　vague　and　transient



desires；　is　the　highest　and　most　harmonious　development　of　his



powers　to　a　complete　and　consistent　whole〃；　that；　therefore；　the



object　〃towards　which　every　human　being　must　ceaselessly　direct　his



efforts；　and　on　which　especially　those　who　design　to　influence　their



fellow…men　must　ever　keep　their　eyes；　is　the　individuality　of　power



and　development〃；　that　for　this　there　are　two　requisites；　〃freedom；



and　variety　of　situations〃；　and　that　from　the　union　of　these　arise



〃individual　vigour　and　manifold