on liberty-第14章

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have　and　give　it　to　the　poor。　They　are　not　insincere　when　they　say



that　they　believe　these　things。　They　do　believe　them；　as　people



believe　what　they　have　always　heard　lauded　and　never　discussed。　But　in



the　sense　of　that　living　belief　which　regulates　conduct；　they



believe　these　doctrines　just　up　to　the　point　to　which　it　is　usual　to



act　upon　them。　The　doctrines　in　their　integrity　are　serviceable　to



pelt　adversaries　with；　and　it　is　understood　that　they　are　to　be　put



forward　（when　possible）　as　the　reasons　for　whatever　people　do　that



they　think　laudable。　But　any　one　who　reminded　them　that　the　maxims



require　an　infinity　of　things　which　they　never　even　think　of　doing；



would　gain　nothing　but　to　be　classed　among　those　very　unpopular



characters　who　affect　to　be　better　than　other　people。　The　doctrines



have　no　hold　on　ordinary　believers…　are　not　a　power　in　their　minds。



They　have　an　habitual　respect　for　the　sound　of　them；　but　no　feeling



which　spreads　from　the　words　to　the　things　signified；　and　forces　the



mind　to　take　them　in；　and　make　them　conform　to　the　formula。　Whenever



conduct　is　concerned；　they　look　round　for　Mr。　A　and　B　to　direct　them



how　far　to　go　in　obeying　Christ。



　　Now　we　may　be　well　assured　that　the　case　was　not　thus；　but　far



otherwise；　with　the　early　Christians。　Had　it　been　thus；　Christianity



never　would　have　expanded　from　an　obscure　sect　of　the　despised　Hebrews



into　the　religion　of　the　Roman　empire。　When　their　enemies　said；　〃See



how　these　Christians　love　one　another〃　（a　remark　not　likely　to　be　made



by　anybody　now）；　they　assuredly　had　a　much　livelier　feeling　of　the



meaning　of　their　creed　than　they　have　ever　had　since。　And　to　this



cause；　probably；　it　is　chiefly　owing　that　Christianity　now　makes　so



little　progress　in　extending　its　domain；　and　after　eighteen



centuries　is　still　nearly　confined　to　Europeans　and　the　descendants　of



Europeans。　Even　with　the　strictly　religious；　who　are　much　in　earnest



about　their　doctrines；　and　attach　a　greater　amount　of　meaning　to



many　of　them　than　people　in　general；　it　commonly　happens　that　the　part



which　is　thus　comparatively　active　in　their　minds　is　that　which　was



made　by　Calvin；　or　Knox；　or　some　such　person　much　nearer　in



character　to　themselves。　The　sayings　of　Christ　coexist　passively　in



their　minds；　producing　hardly　any　effect　beyond　what　is　caused　by　mere



listening　to　words　so　amiable　and　bland。　There　are　many　reasons；



doubtless；　why　doctrines　which　are　the　badge　of　a　sect　retain　more



of　their　vitality　than　those　common　to　all　recognised　sects；　and　why



more　pains　are　taken　by　teachers　to　keep　their　meaning　alive；　but



one　reason　certainly　is；　that　the　peculiar　doctrines　are　more



questioned；　and　have　to　be　oftener　defended　against　open　gainsayers。



Both　teachers　and　learners　go　to　sleep　at　their　post；　as　soon　as　there



is　no　enemy　in　the　field。



　　The　same　thing　holds　true；　generally　speaking；　of　all　traditional



doctrines…　those　of　prudence　and　knowledge　of　life；　as　well　as　of



morals　or　religion。　All　languages　and　literatures　are　full　of



general　observations　on　life；　both　as　to　what　it　is；　and　how　to



conduct　oneself　in　it；　observations　which　everybody　knows；　which



everybody　repeats；　or　hears　with　acquiescence；　which　are　received　as



truisms；　yet　of　which　most　people　first　truly　learn　the　meaning　when



experience；　generally　of　a　painful　kind；　has　made　it　a　reality　to



them。　How　often；　when　smarting　under　some　unforeseen　misfortune　or



disappointment；　does　a　person　call　to　mind　some　proverb　or　common



saying；　familiar　to　him　all　his　life；　the　meaning　of　which；　if　he



had　ever　before　felt　it　as　he　does　now；　would　have　saved　him　from



the　calamity。　There　are　indeed　reasons　for　this；　other　than　the



absence　of　discussion；　there　are　many　truths　of　which　the　full　meaning



cannot　be　realised　until　personal　experience　has　brought　it　home。



But　much　more　of　the　meaning　even　of　these　would　have　been　understood；



and　what　was　understood　would　have　been　far　more　deeply　impressed　on



the　mind；　if　the　man　had　been　accustomed　to　hear　it　argued　pro　and　con



by　people　who　did　understand　it。　The　fatal　tendency　of　mankind　to



leave　off　thinking　about　a　thing　when　it　is　no　longer　doubtful；　is　the



cause　of　half　their　errors。　A　contemporary　author　has　well　spoken　of



〃the　deep　slumber　of　a　decided　opinion。〃



　　But　what！　（it　may　be　asked）　Is　the　absence　of　unanimity　an



indispensable　condition　of　true　knowledge？　Is　it　necessary　that　some



part　of　mankind　should　persist　in　error　to　enable　any　to　realise　the



truth？　Does　a　belief　cease　to　be　real　and　vital　as　soon　as　it　is



generally　received…　and　is　a　proposition　never　thoroughly　understood



and　felt　unless　some　doubt　of　it　remains？　As　soon　as　mankind　have



unanimously　accepted　a　truth；　does　the　truth　perish　within　them？　The



highest　aim　and　best　result　of　improved　intelligence；　it　has



hitherto　been　thought；　is　to　unite　mankind　more　and　more　in　the



acknowledgment　of　all　important　truths；　and　does　the　intelligence　only



last　as　long　as　it　has　not　achieved　its　object？　Do　the　fruits　of



conquest　perish　by　the　very　completeness　of　the　victory？



　　I　affirm　no　such　thing。　As　mankind　improve；　the　number　of



doctrines　which　are　no　longer　disputed　or　doubted　will　be　constantly



on　the　increase：　and　the　well…being　of　mankind　may　almost　be



measured　by　the　number　and　gravity　of　the　truths　which　have　reached



the　point　of　being　uncontested。　The　cessation；　on　one　question　after



another；　of　serious　controversy；　is　one　of　the　necessary　incidents



of　the　consolidation　of　opinion；　a　consolidation　as　salutary　in　the



case　of　true　opinions；　as　it　is　dangerous　and　noxious　when　the



opinions　are　erroneous。　But　though　this　gradual　narrowing　of　the



bounds　of　diversity　of　opinion　is　necessary　in　both　senses　of　the



term；　being　at　once　inevitable　and　indispensable；　we　are　not　therefore



obliged　to　conclude　that　all　its　consequences　must　be　beneficial。



The　loss　of　so　important　an　aid　to　the　intelligent　and　living



apprehension　of　a　truth；　as　is　afforded　by　the　necessity　of　explaining



it　to；　or　defending　it　against；　opponents；　though　not　sufficient　to



outweigh；　is　no　trifling　drawback　from；　the　benefit　of　its　universal



recognition。　Where　this　advantage　can　no　longer　be　had；　I　confess　I



should　like　to　see　the　teachers　of　mankind　endeavouring　to　provide　a



substitute　for　it；　some　contrivance　for　making　the　difficulties　of　the



question　as　present　to　the　learner's　consciousness；　as　if　they　were



pressed　upon　him　by　a　dissentient　champion；　eager　for　his　conversion。



　　But　instead　of　seeking　contrivances　for　this　purpose；　they　have　lost



those　they　formerly　had。　The　Socratic　dialectics；　so　magnificently



exemplified　in　the　dialogues　of　Plato；　were　a　contrivance　of　this



description。　They　were　essentially　a　negative　discussion　of　the



great　question　of　philosophy　and　life；　directed　with　consummate



skill　to　the　purpose　of　convincing　any　one　who　had　merely　adopted



the　commonplaces　of　received　opinion　that　he　did　not　understand　the



subject…　that　he　as　yet　attached　no　definite　meaning　to　the　doctrines



he　professed；　in　order　that；　becoming　aware　of　his　ignorance；　he　might



be　put　in　the　way　to　obtain　a　stable　belief；　resting　on　a　clear



apprehension　both　of　the　meaning　of　doctrines　and　of　their　evidence。



The　school　disputations　of　the　Middle　Ages　had　a　somewhat　similar



object。　They　were　intended　to　make　sure　that　the　pupil　understood



his　own　opinion；　and　（by　necessary　correlation）　the　opinion　opposed　to



it；　and　could　enforce　the　grounds　of　the　one　and　confute　those　of



the　other。　These　last…mentioned　contests　had　indeed　the　incurable



defect；　that　the　premises　appealed　to　were　taken　from　authority；　not



from　reason；　and；　as　a　discipline　to　the　mind；　they　were　in　every



respect　inferior　to　the　power