the science of right-第24章

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what　possession　is　rightful　（lex　juridica）；　and　in　the　third；　it

declares　what　is　right；　and　what　is　just；　and　to　what　extent；　by　the

judgement　of　a　court　in　any　particular　case　coming　under　the　given

law。　In　this　latter　relation；　the　public　court　is　called　the　justice

of　the　country；　and　the　question　whether　there　actually　is　or　is　not

such　an　administration　of　public　justice　may　be　regarded　as　the　most

important　of　all　juridical　interests。

　　The　non…juridical　state　is　that　condition　of　society　in　which

there　is　no　distributive　justice。　It　is　commonly　called　the　natural

state　（status　naturalis）；　or　the　state　of　nature。　It　is　not　the　social

state；　as　Achenwall　puts　it；　for　this　may　be　in　itself　an　artificial

state　（status　artificialis）；　that　is　to　be　contradistinguished　from

the　〃natural〃　state。　The　opposite　of　the　state　of　nature　is　the

civil　state　（status　civilis）　as　the　condition　of　a　society　standing

under　a　distributive　justice。　In　the　state　of　nature；　there　may　even

be　juridical　forms　of　society　such　as　marriage；　parental　authority；

the　household；　and　such　like。　For　none　of　these；　however；　does　any　law

a　priori　lay　it　down　as　an　incumbent　obligation：　〃Thou　shalt　enter

into　this　state。〃　But　it　may　be　said　of　the　juridical　state　that：　〃All

men　who　may　even　involuntarily　come　into　relations　of　right　with　one

another　ought　to　enter　into　this　state。〃

　　The　natural　or　non…juridical　social　state　may　be　viewed　as　the

sphere　of　private　right；　and　the　civil　state　may　be　specially　regarded

as　the　sphere　of　public　right。　The　latter　state　contains　no　more　and

no　other　duties　of　men　towards　each　other　than　what　may　be　conceived

in　connection　with　the　former　state；　the　matter　of　private　right　is；

in　short；　the　very　same　in　both。　The　laws　of　the　civil　state；

therefore；　only　turn　upon　the　juridical　form　of　the　coexistence　of　men

under　a　common　constitution；　and；　in　this　respect；　these　laws　must

necessarily　be　regarded　and　conceived　as　public　laws。

　　The　civil　union　（unio　civilis）　cannot；　in　the　strict　sense；　be

properly　called　a　society；　for　there　is　no　sociality　in　common　between

the　ruler　（imperans）　and　the　subject　（subditus）　under　a　civil

constitution。　They　are　not　co…ordinated　as　associates　in　a　society

with　each　other；　but　the　one　is　subordinated　to　the　other。　Those　who

may　be　co…ordinated　with　one　another　must　consider　themselves　as

mutually　equal；　in　so　far　as　they　stand　under　common　laws。　The　civil

union　may　therefore　be　regarded　not　so　much　as　being；　but　rather　as

making　a　society。



　　　　　　　　　　　　　42。　The　Postulate　of　Public　Right。



　　From　the　conditions　of　private　right　in　the　natural　state；　there

arises　the　postulate　of　public　right。　It　may　be　thus　expressed：　〃In

the　relation　of　unavoidable　coexistence　with　others；　thou　shalt　pass

from　the　state　of　nature　into　a　juridical　union　constituted　under

the　condition　of　a　distributive　justice。〃　The　principle　of　this

postulate　may　be　unfolded　analytically　from　the　conception　of　right　in

the　external　relation；　contradistinguished　from　mere　might　as

violence。

　　No　one　is　under　obligation　to　abstain　from　interfering　with　the

possession　of　others；　unless　they　give　him　a　reciprocal　guarantee

for　the　observance　of　a　similar　abstention　from　interference　with

his　possession。　Nor　does　he　require　to　wait　for　proof　by　experience　of

the　need　of　this　guarantee；　in　view　of　the　antagonistic　disposition　of

others。　He　is　therefore　under　no　obligation　to　wait　till　he　acquires

practical　prudence　at　his　own　cost；　for　he　can　perceive　in　himself

evidence　of　the　natural　inclination　of　men　to　play　the　master　over

others；　and　to　disregard　the　claims　of　the　right　of　others；　when

they　feel　themselves　their　superiors　by　might　or　fraud。　And　thus　it　is

not　necessary　to　wait　for　the　melancholy　experience　of　actual

hostility；　the　individual　is　from　the　first　entitled　to　exercise　a

rightful　compulsion　towards　those　who　already　threaten　him　by　their

very　nature。　Quilibet　praesumitur　malus；　donec　securitatem　dederit

oppositi。

　　So　long　as　the　intention　to　live　and　continue　in　this　state　of

externally　lawless　freedom　prevails；　men　may　be　said　to　do　no　wrong　or

injustice　at　all　to　one　another；　even　when　they　wage　war　against

each　other。　For　what　seems　competent　as　good　for　the　one　is　equally

valid　for　the　other；　as　if　it　were　so　by　mutual　agreement。　Uti

partes　de　jure　suo　disponunt；　ita　jus　est。　But　generally　they　must

be　considered　as　being　in　the　highest　state　of　wrong；　as　being　and

willing　to　be　in　a　condition　which　is　not　juridical；　and　in　which；

therefore；　no　one　can　be　secured　against　violence；　in　the　possession

of　his　own。



　　The　distinction　between　what　is　only　formally　and　what　is　also

materially　wrong；　and　unjust；　finds　frequent　application　in　the

science　of　right。　An　enemy　who；　on　occupying　a　besieged　fortress；

instead　of　honourably　fulfilling　the　conditions　of　a　capitulation；

maltreats　the　garrison　on　marching　out；　or　otherwise　violates　the

agreement；　cannot　complain　of　injury　or　wrong　if　on　another　occasion

the　same　treatment　is　inflicted　upon　themselves。　But；　in　fact；　all

such　actions　fundamentally　involve　the　commission　of　wrong　and

injustice；　in　the　highest　degree；　because　they　take　all　validity

away　from　the　conception　of　right；　and　give　up　everything；　as　it

were　by　law　itself；　to　savage　violence；　and　thus　overthrow　the

rights　of　men　generally。

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　SECOND　PART。　PUBLIC　RIGHT。

　　　　　THE　SYSTEM　OF　THOSE　LAWS　WHICH　REQUIRE　PUBLIC　PROMULGATION。

　　　　　　　　　　　　THE　PRINCIPLES　OF　RIGHT　IN　CIVIL　SOCIETY。



　　　　　　　　　43。　Definition　and　Division　of　Public　Right。



　　Public　right　embraces　the　whole　of　the　laws　that　require　to　be

universally　promulgated　in　order　to　produce　juridical　state　of

society。　It　is　therefore　a　system　of　those　laws　that　are　requisite　for

a　people　as　a　multitude　of　men　forming　a　nation；　or　for　a　number　of

nations；　in　their　relations　to　each　other。　Men　and　nations；　on　account

of　their　mutual　influence　on　one　another；　require　a　juridical

constitution　uniting　them　under　one　will；　in　order　that　they　may

participate　in　what　is　right。　This　relation　of　the　individuals　of　a

nation　to　each　other　constitutes　the　civil　union　in　the　social

state；　and；　viewed　as　a　whole　in　relation　to　its　constituent

members；　it　forms　the　political　state　（civitas）。

　　1。　The　state；　as　constituted　by　the　common　interest　of　all　to　live

in　a　juridical　union；　is　called；　in　view　of　its　form；　the　commonwealth

or　the　republic　in　the　wider　sense　of　the　term　（res　publica　latius　sic

dicta）。　The　principles　of　right　in　this　sphere　thus　constitute　the

first　department　of　public　right　as　the　right　of　the　state　（jus

civitatis）　or　national　right。　2。　The　state；　again；　viewed　in

relation　to　other　peoples；　is　called　a　power　（potentia）；　whence　arises

the　idea　of　potentates。　Viewed　in　relation　to　the　supposed

hereditary　unity　of　the　people　composing　it；　the　state　constitutes　a

nation　（gens）。　Under　the　general　conception　of　public　right；　in

addition　to　the　right　of　the　individual　state；　there　thus　arises

another　department　of　right；　constituting　the　right　of　nations　（jus

gentium）　or　international　right。　3。　Further；　as　the　surface　of　the

earth　is　not　unlimited　in　extent；　but　is　circumscribed　into　a　unity；

national　right　and　international　right　necessarily　culminate　in　the

idea　of　a　universal　right　of　mankind；　which　may　be　called

Cosmopolitical　Right　（jus　cosmopoliticum）。　And　national；

international；　and　cosmopolitical　right　are　so　interconnected；　that；

if　any　one　of　these　three　possible　forms　of　the　juridical　relation

fails　to　embody　the　essential　principles　that　ought　to　regulate

external　freedom　by　law；　the　structure　of　legislation　reared　by　the

others　will　also　be　undermined；　and　the　whole　system　would　at　last

fall　to　pieces。



　　　　　　　　　　I。　Right　of　the　State　and　Constitutional　Law。

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（Jus　Civitatis）。



　　　　　　　　　44。　Origin　Of　the　Civil　U