the spirit of laws-第95章

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A　country　that　constantly　exports　fewer　manufactures　or　commodities　than　it　receives　will　soon　find　the　balance　sinking；　it　will　receive　less　and　less；　until；　falling　into　extreme　poverty；　it　will　receive　nothing　at　all。

In　trading　countries　the　specie；　which　suddenly　vanishes；　quickly　returns；　because　those　nations　that　have　received　it　are　its　debtors。　But　it　never　returns　into　those　states　of　which　we　have　just　been　speaking；　because　those　who　have　received　it　owe　them　nothing。

Poland　will　serve　us　for　an　example。　It　has　scarcely　any　of　those　things　which　we　call　the　movable　effects　of　the　universe；　except　corn；　the　produce　of　its　lands。　Some　of　the　lords　possess　entire　provinces；　they　oppress　the　husbandmen；　in　order　to　have　greater　quantities　of　corn；　which　they　send　to　strangers；　to　procure　the　superfluous　demands　of　luxury。　If　Poland　had　no　foreign　trade；　its　inhabitants　would　be　happier。　The　grandees；　who　would　have　only　their　corn；　would　give　it　to　their　peasants　for　subsistence；　as　their　too　extensive　estates　would　become　burdensome；　they　would　divide　them　among　their　peasants；　every　one　would　find　skins　or　wool　in　their　herds　or　flocks；　so　that　they　would　no　longer　be　at　an　immense　expense　in　providing　clothes；　the　great；　who　are　ever　fond　of　luxury；　not　being　able　to　find　it　but　in　their　own　country；　would　encourage　the　labour　of　the　poor。　This　nation；　I　affirm；　would　then　become　more　flourishing；　at　least　if　it　did　not　become　barbarous；　and　this　the　laws　might　easily　prevent。

Let　us　next　consider　Japan。　The　vast　quantity　of　what　they　receive　is　the　cause　of　the　vast　quantity　of　merchandise　they　send　abroad。　Things　are　thus　in　as　nice　an　equilibrium　as　if　the　importation　and　exportation　were　but　small。　Besides；　this　kind　of　exuberance　in　the　state　is　productive　of　a　thousand　advantages；　there　is　a　greater　consumption；　a　greater　quantity　of　those　things　on　which　the　arts　are　exercised；　more　men　employed；　and　more　numerous　means　of　acquiring　power；　exigencies　may　also　happen　that　require　a　speedy　assistance；　which　so　opulent　a　state　can　better　afford　than　any　other。　It　is　difficult　for　a　country　to　avoid　having　superfluities；　but　it　is　the　nature　of　commerce　to　render　the　superfluous　useful；　and　the　useful　necessary。　The　state　will　be；　therefore；　able　to　afford　necessaries　to　a　much　greater　number　of　subjects。

Let　us　say；　then；　that　it　is　not　those　nations　who　have　need　of　nothing　that　must　lose　by　trade；　it　is　those　who　have　need　of　everything。　It　is　not　such　people　as　have　a　sufficiency　within　themselves；　but　those　who　are　most　in　want；　that　will　find　an　advantage　in　putting　a　stop　to　all　commercial　intercourse。

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1。　C？sar　said　of　the　Gauls　that　they　were　spoiled　by　the　neighbourhood　and　commerce　of　Marseilles；　insomuch　that　they　who　formerly　always　conquered　the　Germans　had　now　become　inferior　to　them。　　De　Bello　Gall。；　vi。　23。

2。　Holland。

3。　Et　qui　modo　hospes　fuerat；　monstrator　hospitii。　　De　Moribus　Germanorum；　21。　See　C？sar；　De　Bello　Gall。　vi。　21。

4。　Tit。　38。

5。　Cicero；　De　Rep。；　iv。

6。　Justin；　xliii。　3。

7。　Father　Du　Halde；　ii；　p。　170。

8。　This　was　first　established　by　the　Portuguese。　　Pirard；　Voyages；　part　II；　15。

9。　Acts　of　Navigation；　1660。　It　is　only　in　time　of　war　that　the　merchants　of　Boston　and　Philadelphia　send　their　vessels　directly　to　the　Mediterranean。

10。　Published　in　Cadiz　in　March；　1740。

11。　Plutarch；　Against　Lending　Upon　Usury；　4。

12。　Diodorus；　i；　part　II；　79。

13。　The　Greek　legislators　were　to　blame　in　preventing　the　arms　and　plough　of　any　man　from　being　taken　in　pledge；　and　yet　permitting　the　taking　of　the　man　himself。　　Ibid。

14。　Hypotiposes；　i。　14。

15。　Laws；　viii。

16。　Zonaras。

17。　Leg。；　Nobiliores；　Cod。　de　Comm。；　Leg。　ult。　de　rescind；　vendit。

18。　This　is　actually　very　often　the　case　in　such　governments。




Book　XXI。　Of　Laws　in　relation　to　Commerce；　considered　in　the　Revolutions　it　has　met　with　in　the　World

1。　Some　general　Considerations。　Though　commerce　be　subject　to　great　revolutions；　yet　it　is　possible　that　certain　physical　causes；　as　the　quality　of　the　soil；　or　the　climate；　may　fix　its　nature　for　ever。

We　at　present　carry　on　the　trade　of　the　Indies　merely　by　means　of　the　silver　which　we　send　thither。　The　Romans　carried　annually　thither　about　fifty　millions　of　sesterces；＇1＇　and　this　silver；　as　ours　is　at　present；　was　exchanged　for　merchandise；　which　was　brought　to　the　west。　Every　nation　that　ever　traded　to　the　Indies　has　constantly　carried　bullion　and　brought　merchandise　in　return。

It　is　nature　itself　that　produces　this　effect。　The　Indians　have　their　hearts　adapted　to　their　manner　of　living。　Our　luxury　cannot　be　theirs；　nor　theirs　our　wants。　Their　climate　demands　and　permits　hardly　anything　which　comes　from　ours。　They　go　in　a　great　measure　naked；　such　clothes　as　they　have　the　country　itself　furnishes；　and　their　religion；　which　is　deeply　rooted；　gives　them　an　aversion　for　those　things　that　serve　for　our　nourishment。　They　want；　therefore；　nothing　but　our　bullion　to　serve　as　the　medium　of　value；　and　for　this　they　give　us　merchandise　in　return；　with　which　the　frugality　of　the　people　and　the　nature　of　the　country　furnish　them　in　great　abundance。　Those　ancient　authors　who　have　mentioned　the　Indies　describe　them　just　as　we　now　find　them；　as　to　their　policy；　customs；　and　manners。＇2＇　The　Indies　have　ever　been　the　same　Indies　they　are　at　present；　and　in　every　period　of　time　those　who　traded　with　that　country　carried　specie　thither　and　brought　none　in　return。

2。　Of　the　People　of　Africa。　The　greatest　part　of　the　people　on　the　coast　of　Africa　are　savages　and　barbarians。　The　principal　reason；　I　believe；　of　this　is；　because　the　small　countries　capable　of　being　inhabited　are　separated　from　each　other　by　large　and　almost　uninhabitable　tracts　of　land。　They　are　without　industry　or　arts。　They　have　gold　in　abundance；　which　they　receive　immediately　from　the　hand　of　nature。　Every　civilised　state　is　therefore　in　a　condition　to　traffic　with　them　to　advantage；　by　raising　their　esteem　for　things　of　no　value；　and　receiving　a　very　high　price　in　return。

3。　That　the　Wants　of　the　People　in　the　South　are　different　from　those　of　the　North。　In　Europe　there　is　a　kind　of　balance　between　the　southern　and　northern　nations。　The　first　have　every　convenience　of　life；　and　few　of　its　wants：　the　last　have　many　wants；　and　few　conveniences。　To　one　nature　has　given　much；　and　demands　but　little；　to　the　other　she　has　given　but　little；　and　demands　a　great　deal。　The　equilibrium　is　maintained　by　the　laziness　of　the　southern　nations；　and　by　the　industry　and　activity　which　she　has　given　to　those　in　the　north。　The　latter　are　obliged　to　undergo　excessive　labour；　without　which　they　would　want　everything；　and　degenerate　into　barbarians。　This　has　neutralised　slavery　to　the　people　of　the　south：　as　they　can　easily　dispense　with　riches；　they　can　more　easily　dispense　with　liberty。　But　the　people　of　the　north　have　need　of　liberty；　for　this　can　best　procure　them　the　means　of　satisfying　all　those　wants　which　they　have　received　from　nature。　The　people　of　the　north；　then；　are　in　a　forced　state；　if　they　are　not　either　free　or　barbarians。　Almost　all　the　people　of　the　south　are；　in　some　measure；　in　a　state　of　violence；　if　they　are　not　slaves。

4。　The　principal　Difference　between　the　Commerce　of　the　Ancients　and　the　Moderns。　The　world　has　found　itself；　from　time　to　time；　in　different　situations；　by　which　the　face　of　commerce　has　been　altered。　The　trade　of　Europe　is；　at　present；　carried　on　principally　from　the　north　to　the　south；　and　the　difference　of　climate　is　the　cause　that　the　several　nations　have　great　occasion　for　the　merchandise　of　each　other。　For　example；　the　liquors　of　the　south；　which　are　carried　to　the　north；　form　a　commerce　little　known　to　the　ancients。　Thus　the　burden　of　vessels；　which　was　formerly　computed　by　measures　of　corn；　is　at　present　determined　by　tuns　of　liquor。

The　ancient　commerce；　so　far　as　it　is　known　to　us；　was　carried　on　from　one　port　in　the　Mediterranean　to　another；　and　was　almost　wholly　confined　to　the　south。　Now　the　people　of　the　same　climate；　having　nearly　the　same　things　of　their　own；　have　not　the　same　need　of　trading　among　themselves　as　with