the spirit of laws-第8章

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It　is　in　endeavouring　to　instruct　mankind　that　we　are　best　able　to　practise　that　general　virtue　which　comprehends　the　love　of　all。　Man；　that　flexible　being；　conforming　in　society　to　the　thoughts　and　impressions　of　others；　is　equally　capable　of　knowing　his　own　nature；　whenever　it　is　laid　open　to　his　view；　and　of　losing　the　very　sense　of　it；　when　this　idea　is　banished　from　his　mind。

Often　have　I　begun；　and　as　often　have　I　laid　aside；　this　undertaking。　I　have　a　thousand　times　given　the　leaves　I　had　written　to　the　winds：　I；　every　day；　felt　my　paternal　hands　fall。　I　have　followed　my　object　without　any　fixed　plan：　I　have　known　neither　rules　nor　exceptions；　I　have　found　the　truth；　only　to　lose　it　again。　But　when　I　once　discovered　my　first　principles；　everything　I　sought　for　appeared；　and　in　the　course　of　twenty　years；　I　have　seen　my　work　begun；　growing　up；　advancing　to　maturity；　and　finished。

If　this　work　meets　with　success；　I　shall　owe　it　chiefly　to　the　grandeur　and　majesty　of　the　subject。　However；　I　do　not　think　that　I　have　been　totally　deficient　in　point　of　genius。　When　I　have　seen　what　so　many　great　men　both　in　France；　England；　and　Germany　have　said　before　me；　I　have　been　lost　in　admiration；　but　I　have　not　lost　my　courage：　I　have　said　with　Correggio；　〃And　I　also　am　a　painter。〃

ADVERTISEMENT

1。　For　the　better　understanding　of　the　first　four　books　of　this　work；　it　is　to　be　observed　that　what　I　distinguish　by　the　name　of　virtue；　in　a　republic；　is　the　love　of　one's　country；　that　is；　the　love　of　equality。　It　is　not　a　moral；　nor　a　Christian；　but　a　political　virtue；　and　it　is　the　spring　which　sets　the　republican　government　in　motion；　as　honour　is　the　spring　which　gives　motion　to　monarchy。　Hence　it　is　that　I　have　distinguished　the　love　of　one's　country；　and　of　equality；　by　the　appellation　of　political　virtue。　My　ideas　are　new；　and　therefore　I　have　been　obliged　to　find　new　words；　or　to　give　new　acceptations　to　old　terms；　in　order　to　convey　my　meaning。　They；　who　are　unacquainted　with　this　particular；　have　made　me　say　most　strange　absurdities；　such　as　would　be　shocking　in　any　part　of　the　world；　because　in　all　countries　and　governments　morality　is　requisite。

2。　The　reader　is　also　to　notice　that　there　is　a　vast　difference　between　saying　that　a　certain　quality；　modification　of　the　mind；　or　virtue；　is　not　the　spring　by　which　government　is　actuated；　and　affirming　that　it　is　not　to　be　found　in　that　government。　Were　I　to　say　such　a　wheel　or　such　a　pinion　is　not　the　spring　which　sets　the　watch　going；　can　you　infer　thence　that　they　are　not　to　be　found　in　the　watch？　So　far　is　it　from　being　true　that　the　moral　and　Christian　virtues　are　excluded　from　monarchy；　that　even　political　virtue　is　not　excluded。　In　a　word；　honour　is　found　in　a　republic；　though　its　spring　be　political　virtue；　and　political　virtue　is　found　in　a　monarchical　government；　though　it　be　actuated　by　honour。

To　conclude；　the　honest　man　of　whom　we　treat　in　the　third　book；　chapter　5；　is　not　the　Christian；　but　the　political　honest　man；　who　is　possessed　of　the　political　virtue　there　mentioned。　He　is　the　man　who　loves　the　laws　of　his　country；　and　who　is　actuated　by　the　love　of　those　laws。　I　have　set　these　matters　in　a　clearer　light　in　the　present　edition；　by　giving　a　more　precise　meaning　to　my　expression：　and　in　most　places　where　I　have　made　use　of　the　word　virtue　I　have　taken　care　to　add　the　term　political。





Book　I。　Of　Laws　in　General

1。　Of　the　Relation　of　Laws　to　different　Beings。　Laws；　in　their　most　general　signification；　are　the　necessary　relations　arising　from　the　nature　of　things。　In　this　sense　all　beings　have　their　laws：　the　Deity＇1＇　His　laws；　the　material　world　its　laws；　the　intelligences　superior　to　man　their　laws；　the　beasts　their　laws；　man　his　laws。

They　who　assert　that　a　blind　fatality　produced　the　various　effects　we　behold　in　this　world　talk　very　absurdly；　for　can　anything　be　more　unreasonable　than　to　pretend　that　a　blind　fatality　could　be　productive　of　intelligent　beings？

There　is；　then；　a　prime　reason；　and　laws　are　the　relations　subsisting　between　it　and　different　beings；　and　the　relations　of　these　to　one　another。

God　is　related　to　the　universe；　as　Creator　and　Preserver；　the　laws　by　which　He　created　all　things　are　those　by　which　He　preserves　them。　He　acts　according　to　these　rules；　because　He　knows　them；　He　knows　them；　because　He　made　them；　and　He　made　them；　because　they　are　in　relation　to　His　wisdom　and　power。

Since　we　observe　that　the　world；　though　formed　by　the　motion　of　matter；　and　void　of　understanding；　subsists　through　so　long　a　succession　of　ages；　its　motions　must　certainly　be　directed　by　invariable　laws；　and　could　we　imagine　another　world；　it　must　also　have　constant　rules；　or　it　would　inevitably　perish。

Thus　the　creation；　which　seems　an　arbitrary　act；　supposes　laws　as　invariable　as　those　of　the　fatality　of　the　Atheists。　It　would　be　absurd　to　say　that　the　Creator　might　govern　the　world　without　those　rules；　since　without　them　it　could　not　subsist。

These　rules　are　a　fixed　and　invariable　relation。　In　bodies　moved；　the　motion　is　received；　increased；　diminished；　or　lost；　according　to　the　relations　of　the　quantity　of　matter　and　velocity；　each　diversity　is　uniformity；　each　change　is　constancy。　

Particular　intelligent　beings　may　have　laws　of　their　own　making；　but　they　have　some　likewise　which　they　never　made。　Before　there　were　intelligent　beings；　they　were　possible；　they　had　therefore　possible　relations；　and　consequently　possible　laws。　Before　laws　were　made；　there　were　relations　of　possible　justice。　To　say　that　there　is　nothing　just　or　unjust　but　what　is　commanded　or　forbidden　by　positive　laws；　is　the　same　as　saying　that　before　the　describing　of　a　circle　all　the　radii　were　not　equal。

We　must　therefore　acknowledge　relations　of　justice　antecedent　to　the　positive　law　by　which　they　are　established：　as；　for　instance；　if　human　societies　existed；　it　would　be　right　to　conform　to　their　laws；　if　there　were　intelligent　beings　that　had　received　a　benefit　of　another　being；　they　ought　to　show　their　gratitude；　if　one　intelligent　being　had　created　another　intelligent　being；　the　latter　ought　to　continue　in　its　original　state　of　dependence；　if　one　intelligent　being　injures　another；　it　deserves　a　retaliation；　and　so　on。

But　the　intelligent　world　is　far　from　being　so　well　governed　as　the　physical。　For　though　the　former　has　also　its　laws；　which　of　their　own　nature　are　invariable；　it　does　not　conform　to　them　so　exactly　as　the　physical　world。　This　is　because；　on　the　one　hand；　particular　intelligent　beings　are　of　a　finite　nature；　and　consequently　liable　to　error；　and　on　the　other；　their　nature　requires　them　to　be　free　agents。　Hence　they　do　not　steadily　conform　to　their　primitive　laws；　and　even　those　of　their　own　instituting　they　frequently　infringe。　

Whether　brutes　be　governed　by　the　general　laws　of　motion；　or　by　a　particular　movement；　we　cannot　determine。　Be　that　as　it　may；　they　have　not　a　more　intimate　relation　to　God　than　the　rest　of　the　material　world；　and　sensation　is　of　no　other　use　to　them　than　in　the　relation　they　have　either　to　other　particular　beings　or　to　themselves。　

By　the　allurement　of　pleasure　they　preserve　the　individual；　and　by　the　same　allurement　they　preserve　their　species。　They　have　natural　laws；　because　they　are　united　by　sensation；　positive　laws　they　have　none；　because　they　are　not　connected　by　knowledge。　And　yet　they　do　not　invariably　conform　to　their　natural　laws；　these　are　better　observed　by　vegetables；　that　have　neither　understanding　nor　sense。

Brutes　are　deprived　of　the　high　advantages　which　we　have；　but　they　have　some　which　we　have　not。　They　have　not　our　hopes；　but　they　are　without　our　fears；　they　are　subject　like　us　to　death；　but　without　knowing　it；　even　most　of　them　are　more　attentive　than　we　to　self…preservation；　and　do　not　make　so　bad　a　use　of　their　passions。　

Man；　as　a　physical　being；　is　like　other　bodies　governed　by　invariable　laws。　As　an　intelligent　being；　he　incessantly　transgresses　the　laws　established　by　God；　and　changes　those　of　his　own　instituting。　He　is　left　to　his　private　direction；　though　a　limited　being；　and　subject；　like　all　finite　intelligences；　to　ignorance　and　error：　even　his　imperfect　knowled