the spirit of laws-第59章

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10。　The　same　Subject　continued。　There　was　a　law　passed　in　England　under　Henry　VIII；　by　which　whoever　predicted　the　king's　death　was　declared　guilty　of　high　treason。　This　law　was　extremely　vague；　the　terror　of　despotic　power　is　so　great　that　it　recoils　upon　those　who　exercise　it。　In　this　king's　last　illness；　the　physicians　would　not　venture　to　say　he　was　in　danger；　and　surely　they　acted　very　right。＇31＇

11。　Of　Thoughts。　Marsyas　dreamed　that　he　had　cut　Dionysius's　throat。＇32＇　Dionysius　put　him　to　death；　pretending　that　he　would　never　have　dreamed　of　such　a　thing　by　night　if　he　had　not　thought　of　it　by　day。　This　was　a　most　tyrannical　action：　for　though　it　had　been　the　subject　of　his　thoughts；　yet　he　had　made　no　attempt＇33＇　towards　it。　The　laws　do　not　take　upon　them　to　punish　any　other　than　overt　acts。　

12。　Of　indiscreet　Speeches。　Nothing　renders　the　crime　of　high　treason　more　arbitrary　than　declaring　people　guilty　of　it　for　indiscreet　speeches。　Speech　is　so　subject　to　interpretation；　there　is　so　great　a　difference　between　indiscretion　and　malice；　and　frequently　so　little　is　there　of　the　latter　in　the　freedom　of　expression；　that　the　law　can　hardly　subject　people　to　a　capital　punishment　for　words　unless　it　expressly　declares　what　words　they　are。＇34＇

Words　do　not　constitute　an　overt　act；　they　remain　only　in　idea。　When　considered　by　themselves；　they　have　generally　no　determinate　signification；　for　this　depends　on　the　tone　in　which　they　are　uttered。　It　often　happens　that　in　repeating　the　same　words　they　have　not　the　same　meaning；　this　depends　on　their　connection　with　other　things；　and　sometimes　more　is　signified　by　silence　than　by　any　expression　whatever。　Since　there　can　be　nothing　so　equivocal　and　ambiguous　as　all　this；　how　is　it　possible　to　convert　it　into　a　crime　of　high　treason？　Wherever　this　law　is　established；　there　is　an　end　not　only　of　liberty；　but　even　of　its　very　shadow。

In　the　manifesto　of　the　late　Czarina　against　the　family　of　the　D'Olgoruckys；＇35＇　one　of　these　princes　is　condemned　to　death　for　having　uttered　some　indecent　words　concerning　her　person：　another；　for　having　maliciously　interpreted　her　imperial　laws；　and　for　having　offended　her　sacred　person　by　disrespectful　expressions。

Not　that　I　pretend　to　diminish　the　just　indignation　of　the　public　against　those　who　presume　to　stain　the　glory　of　their　sovereign；　what　I　mean　is　that；　if　despotic　princes　are　willing　to　moderate　their　power；　a　milder　chastisement　would　be　more　proper　on　those　occasions　than　the　charge　of　high　treason　　a　thing　always　terrible　even　to　innocence　itself。＇36＇

Overt　acts　do　not　happen　every　day；　they　are　exposed　to　the　eye　of　the　public；　and　a　false　charge　with　regard　to　matters　of　fact　may　be　easily　detected。　Words　carried　into　action　assume　the　nature　of　that　action。　Thus　a　man　who　goes　into　a　public　market…place　to　incite　the　subject　to　revolt　incurs　the　guilt　of　high　treason；　because　the　words　are　joined　to　the　action；　and　partake　of　its　nature。　It　is　not　the　words　that　are　punished；　but　an　action　in　which　words　are　employed。　They　do　not　become　criminal；　but　when　they　are　annexed　to　a　criminal　action：　everything　is　confounded　if　words　are　construed　into　a　capital　crime；　instead　of　considering　them　only　as　a　mark　of　that　crime。

The　Emperors　Theodosius；　Arcadius；　and　Honorius　wrote　thus　to　Rufinus；　who　was　pr？fectus　pr？torio：　〃Though　a　man　should　happen　to　speak　amiss　of　our　person　or　government；　we　do　not　intend　to　punish　him：＇37＇　if　he　has　spoken　through　levity；　we　must　despise　him；　if　through　folly；　we　must　pity　him；　and　if　he　wrongs　us；　we　must　forgive　him。　Therefore；　leaving　things　as　they　are；　you　are　to　inform　us　accordingly；　that　we　may　be　able　to　judge　of　words　by　persons；　and　that　we　may　duly　consider　whether　we　ought　to　punish　or　overlook　them。〃

13。　Of　Writings。　In　writings　there　is　something　more　permanent　than　in　words；　but　when　they　are　in　no　way　preparative　to　high　treason　they　cannot　amount　to　that　charge。

And　yet　Augustus　and　Tiberius　subjected　satirical　writers　to　the　same　punishment　as　for　having　violated　the　law　of　maiestas。　Augustus；＇38＇　because　of　some　libels　that　had　been　written　against　persons　of　the　first　quality；　Tiberius；　because　of　those　which　he　suspected　to　have　been　written　against　himself。　Nothing　was　more　fatal　to　Roman　liberty。　Cremutius　Cordus　was　accused　of　having　called　Cassius　in　his　annals　the　last　of　the　Romans。＇39＇

Satirical　writings　are　hardly　known　in　despotic　governments；　where　dejection　of　mind　on　the　one　hand；　and　ignorance　on　the　other；　afford　neither　abilities　nor　will　to　write。　In　democracies　they　are　not　hindered；　for　the　very　same　reason　which　causes　them　to　be　prohibited　in　monarchies；　being　generally　levelled　against　men　of　power　and　authority；　they　flatter　the　malignancy　of　the　people；　who　are　the　governing　party。　In　monarchies　they　are　forbidden；　but　rather　as　a　subject　of　civil　animadversion　than　as　a　capital　crime。　They　may　amuse　the　general　malevolence；　please　the　malcontents；　diminish　the　envy　against　public　employments；　give　the　people　patience　to　suffer；　and　make　them　laugh　at　their　sufferings。

But　no　government　is　so　averse　to　satirical　writings　as　the　aristocratic。　There　the　magistrates　are　petty　sovereigns；　but　not　great　enough　to　despise　affronts。　If　in　a　monarchy　a　satirical　stroke　is　designed　against　the　prince；　he　is　placed　on　such　an　eminence　that　it　does　not　reach　him；　but　an　aristocratic　lord　is　pierced　to　the　very　heart。　Hence　the　decemvirs；　who　formed　an　aristocracy；　punished　satirical　writings　with　death。＇40＇

14。　Breach　of　Modesty　in　punishing　Crimes。　There　are　rules　of　modesty　observed　by　almost　every　nation　in　the　world；　now　it　would　be　very　absurd　to　infringe　these　rules　in　the　punishment　of　crimes；　the　principal　view　of　which　ought　always　to　be　the　establishment　of　order。

Was　it　the　intent　of　those　Oriental　nations　who　exposed　women　to　elephants　trained　up　for　an　abominable　kind　of　punishment　　was　it；　I　say；　their　intent　to　establish　one　law　by　the　breach　of　another？

By　an　ancient　custom　of　the　Romans　it　was　not　permitted　to　put　girls　to　death　till　they　were　ripe　for　marriage。　Tiberius　found　an　expedient　of　having　them　debauched　by　the　executioner　before　they　were　brought　to　the　place　of　punishment：＇41＇　that　bloody　and　subtle　tyrant　destroyed　the　morals　of　the　people　to　preserve　their　customs。

When　the　magistrates　of　Japan　caused　women　to　be　exposed　naked　in　the　market…places；　and　obliged　them　to　go　upon　all　fours　like　beasts；　modesty　was　shocked：＇42＇　but　when　they　wanted　to　compel　a　mother　　when　they　wanted　to　force　a　son　　I　cannot　proceed；　even　Nature　herself　is　struck　with　horror。＇43＇

15。　Of　the　Enfranchisement　of　Slaves　in　order　to　accuse　their　Master。　Augustus　made　a　law　that　the　slaves　of　those　who　conspired　against　his　person　should　be　sold　to　the　public；　that　they　might　depose　against　their　master。＇44＇　Nothing　ought　to　be　neglected　which　may　contribute　to　the　discovery　of　a　heinous　crime；　it　is　natural；　therefore；　that　in　a　government　where　there　are　slaves　they　should　be　allowed　to　inform；　but　they　ought　not　to　be　admitted　as　witnesses。

Vindex　discovered　the　conspiracy　that　had　been　formed　in　favour　of　Tarquin；　but　he　was　not　admitted　a　witness　against　the　children　of　Brutus。　It　was　right　to　give　liberty　to　a　person　who　had　rendered　so　great　a　service　to　his　country；　but　it　was　not　given　him　with　a　view　of　enabling　him　to　render　this　service。

Hence　the　Emperor　Tacitus　ordained　that　slaves　should　not　be　admitted　as　witnesses　against　their　masters；　even　in　the　case　of　high　treason：＇45＇　a　law　which　was　not　inserted　in　Justinian's　compilation。

16。　Of　Calumny　with　regard　to　the　Crime　of　High　Treason。　To　do　justice　to　the　C？sars；　they　were　not　the　first　devisers　of　the　horrid　laws　which　they　enacted。　It　was　Sulla＇46＇　that　taught　them　that　calumniators　ought　not　to　be　punished；　but　the　abuse　was　soon　carried　to　such　excess　as　to　reward　them。＇47＇

17。　Of　the　revealing　of　Conspiracies。　〃If　thy　brother；　the　son　of　thy　mother；　or　thy　son；　or　thy　daughter；　or　the　wife　of　thy　bosom；　or　thy　friend；　which　is　as　thine　own　soul；　entice　thee　secretly；　saying；　'Let　us　go　and　serve　other　gods；'　thou　shalt　surely　kill　him；　thou　s