the spirit of laws-第57章

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minal　laws　derive　each　punishment　from　the　particular　nature　of　the　crime。　There　are　then　no　arbitrary　decisions；　the　punishment　does　not　flow　from　the　capriciousness　of　the　legislator；　but　from　the　very　nature　of　the　thing；　and　man　uses　no　violence　to　man。

There　are　four　sorts　of　crimes。　Those　of　the　first　species　are　prejudicial　to　religion；　the　second　to　morals；　the　third　to　the　public　tranquillity；　and　the　fourth　to　the　security　of　the　subject。　The　punishments　inflicted　for　these　crimes　ought　to　proceed　from　the　nature　of　each　of　these　species。

In　the　class　of　crimes　that　concern　religion；　I　rank　only　those　which　attack　it　directly；　such　as　all　simple　sacrileges。　For　as　to　crimes　that　disturb　the　exercise　of　it；　they　are　of　the　nature　of　those　which　prejudice　the　tranquillity　or　security　of　the　subject；　and　ought　to　be　referred　to　those　classes。

In　order　to　derive　the　punishment　of　simple　sacrileges　from　the　nature　of　the　thing；＇8＇　it　should　consist　in　depriving　people　of　the　advantages　conferred　by　religion　in　expelling　them　out　of　the　temples；　in　a　temporary　or　perpetual　exclusion　from　the　society　of　the　faithful；　in　shunning　their　presence；　in　execrations；　comminations；　and　conjurations。

In　things　that　prejudice　the　tranquillity　or　security　of　the　state；　secret　actions　are　subject　to　human　jurisdiction。　But　in　those　which　offend　the　Deity；　where　there　is　no　public　act；　there　can　be　no　criminal　matter；　the　whole　passes　between　man　and　God；　who　knows　the　measure　and　time　of　His　vengeance。　Now　if　magistrates；　confounding　things；　should　inquire　also　into　hidden　sacrileges；　this　inquisition　would　be　directed　to　a　kind　of　action　that　does　not　at　all　require　it：　the　liberty　of　the　subject　would　be　subverted　by　arming　the　zeal　of　timorous　as　well　as　of　presumptuous　consciences　against　him。

The　mischief　arises　from　a　notion　which　some　people　have　entertained　of　revenging　the　cause　of　the　Deity。　But　we　must　honour　the　Deity　and　leave　him　to　avenge　his　own　cause。　And；　indeed；　were　we　to　be　directed　by　such　a　notion；　where　would　be　the　end　of　punishments？　If　human　laws　are　to　avenge　the　cause　of　an　infinite　Being；　they　will　be　directed　by　his　infinity；　and　not　by　the　weakness；　ignorance；　and　caprice　of　man。

An　historian＇9＇　of　Provence　relates　a　fact　which　furnishes　us　with　an　excellent　description　of　the　consequences　that　may　arise　in　weak　capacities　from　the　notion　of　avenging　the　Deity's　cause。　A　Jew　was　accused　of　having　blasphemed　against　the　Virgin　Mary；　and　upon　conviction　was　condemned　to　be　flayed　alive。　A　strange　spectacle　was　then　exhibited：　gentlemen　masked；　with　knives　in　their　hands；　mounted　the　scaffold；　and　drove　away　the　executioner；　in　order　to　be　the　avengers　themselves　of　the　honour　of　the　blessed　Virgin。　I　do　not　here　choose　to　anticipate　the　reflections　of　the　reader。

The　second　class　consists　of　those　crimes　which　are　prejudicial　to　morals。　Such　is　the　violation　of　public　or　private　continence；　that　is；　of　the　police　directing　the　manner　in　which　the　pleasure　annexed　to　the　conjunction　of　the　sexes　is　to　be　enjoyed。　The　punishment　of　those　crimes　ought　to　be　also　derived　from　the　nature　of　the　thing；　the　privation　of　such　advantages　as　society　has　attached　to　the　purity　of　morals；　fines；　shame；　necessity　of　concealment；　public　infamy；　expulsion　from　home　and　society；　and；　in　fine；　all　such　punishments　as　belong　to　a　corrective　jurisdiction；　are　sufficient　to　repress　the　temerity　of　the　two　sexes。　In　effect　these　things　are　less　founded　on　malice　than　on　carelessness　and　self…neglect。

We　speak　here　of　none　but　crimes　which　relate　merely　to　morals；　for　as　to　those　that　are　also　prejudicial　to　the　public　security；　such　as　rapes；　they　belong　to　the　fourth　species。

The　crimes　of　the　third　class　are　those　which　disturb　the　public　tranquillity。　The　punishments　ought　therefore　to　be　derived　from　the　nature　of　the　thing；　and　to　be　in　relation　to　this　tranquillity；　such　as　imprisonment；　exile；　and　other　like　chastisements　proper　for　reclaiming　turbulent　spirits；　and　obliging　them　to　conform　to　the　established　order。

I　confine　those　crimes　that　injure　the　public　tranquillity　to　things　which　imply　a　bare　offence　against　the　police；　for　as　to　those　which　by　disturbing　the　public　peace　attack　at　the　same　time　the　security　of　the　subject；　they　ought　to　be　ranked　in　the　fourth　class。

The　punishments　inflicted　upon　the　latter　crimes　are　such　as　are　properly　distinguished　by　that　name。　They　are　a　kind　of　retaliation；　by　which　the　society　refuses　security　to　a　member　who　has　actually　or　intentionally　deprived　another　of　his　security。　These　punishments　are　derived　from　the　nature　of　the　thing；　founded　on　reason；　and　drawn　from　the　very　source　of　good　and　evil。　A　man　deserves　death　when　he　has　violated　the　security　of　the　subject　so　far　as　to　deprive；　or　attempt　to　deprive；　another　man　of　his　life。　This　punishment　of　death　is　the　remedy；　as　it　were；　of　a　sick　society。　When　there　is　a　breach　of　security　with　regard　to　property；　there　may　be　some　reasons　for　inflicting　a　capital　punishment：　but　it　would　be　much　better；　and　perhaps　more　natural；　that　crimes　committed　against　the　security　of　property　should　be　punished　with　the　loss　of　property；　and　this　ought；　indeed；　to　be　the　case　if　men's　fortunes　were　common　or　equal。　But　as　those　who　have　no　property　of　their　own　are　generally　the　readiest　to　attack　that　of　others；　it　has　been　found　necessary；　instead　of　a　pecuniary；　to　substitute　a　corporal；　punishment。　

All　that　I　have　here　advanced　is　founded　in　nature；　and　extremely　favourable　to　the　liberty　of　the　subject。

5。　Of　certain　Accusations　that　require　particular　Moderation　and　Prudence。　It　is　an　important　maxim；　that　we　ought　to　be　very　circumspect　in　the　prosecution　of　witchcraft　and　heresy。　The　accusation　of　these　two　crimes　may　be　vastly　injurious　to　liberty；　and　productive　of　infinite　oppression；　if　the　legislator　knows　not　how　to　set　bounds　to　it。　For　as　it　does　not　directly　point　at　a　person's　actions；　but　at　his　character；　it　grows　dangerous　in　proportion　to　the　ignorance　of　the　people；　and　then　a　man　is　sure　to　be　always　in　danger；　because　the　most　exceptional　conduct；　the　purest　morals；　and　the　constant　practice　of　every　duty　in　life　are　not　a　sufficient　security　against　the　suspicion　of　his　being　guilty　of　the　like　crimes。

Under　Manuel　Comnenus；　the　Protestator＇10＇　was　accused　of　having　conspired　against　the　emperor；　and　of　having　employed　for　that　purpose　some　secrets　that　render　men　invisible。　It　is　mentioned　in　the　life　of　this　emperor＇11＇　that　Aaron　was　detected；　as　he　was　poring　over　a　book　of　Solomon's；　the　reading　of　which　was　sufficient　to　conjure　up　whole　legions　of　devils。　Now　by　supposing　a　power　in　witchcraft　to　rouse　the　infernal　spirits　to　arms；　people　look　upon　a　man　whom　they　call　a　sorcerer　as　the　person　in　the　world　most　likely　to　disturb　and　subvert　society；　and　of　course　they　are　disposed　to　punish　him　with　the　utmost　severity。

But　their　indignation　increases　when　witchcraft　is　supposed　to　have　the　power　of　subverting　religion。　The　history　of　Constantinople＇12＇　informs　us　that　in　consequence　of　a　revelation　made　to　a　bishop　of　a　miracle　having　ceased　because　of　the　magic　practices　of　a　certain　person；　both　that　person　and　his　son　were　put　to　death。　On　how　many　surprising　things　did　not　this　single　crime　depend？　That　revelations　should　not　be　uncommon；　that　the　bishop　should　be　favoured　with　one；　that　it　was　real；　that　there　had　been　a　miracle　in　the　case；　that　this　miracle　had　ceased；　that　there　was　a　magic　art；　that　magic　could　subvert　religion；　that　this　particular　person　was　a　magician；　and；　in　fine；　that　he　had　committed　that　magic　act。

The　Emperor　Theodorus　Lascaris　attributed　his　illness　to　witchcraft。　Those　who　were　accused　of　this　crime　had　no　other　resource　left　than　to　handle　a　red…hot　iron　without　being　hurt。　Thus　among　the　Greeks　a　person　ought　to　have　been　a　sorcerer　to　be　able　to　clear　himself　of　the　imputation　of　witchcraft。　Such　was　the　excess　of　their　stupidity　that　to　the　most　dubious　crime　in　the　world　they　joined　the　most　dubious　proofs　of　innocence。

Under　the　reign　of　Philip　the　Long；　the　Jews　were　expelled　from　France；　being　accused　of　h