the spirit of laws-µÚ160ÕÂ
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£»¡¡hence¡¡it¡¡was¡¡that¡¡they¡¡reckoned¡¡it¡¡a¡¡dishonour¡¡to¡¡die¡¡without¡¡heirs£»¡¡that¡¡they¡¡made¡¡slaves¡¡their¡¡heirs£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡they¡¡devised¡¡substitutions¡£¡¡Of¡¡this¡¡we¡¡have¡¡a¡¡very¡¡strong¡¡proof¡¡in¡¡the¡¡vulgar¡¡substitution£»¡¡which¡¡was¡¡the¡¡first¡¡invented£»¡¡and¡¡took¡¡place¡¡only¡¡when¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡appointed¡¡did¡¡not¡¡accept¡¡of¡¡the¡¡inheritance¡£¡¡Its¡¡view¡¡was¡¡not¡¡to¡¡perpetuate¡¡the¡¡estate¡¡in¡¡a¡¡family¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same¡¡name£»¡¡but¡¡to¡¡find¡¡somebody¡¡that¡¡would¡¡accept¡¡of¡¡it¡£
9¡£¡¡That¡¡the¡¡Greek¡¡and¡¡Roman¡¡Laws¡¡punished¡¡Suicide£»¡¡but¡¡not¡¡through¡¡the¡¡same¡¡Motive¡£¡¡A¡¡man£»¡¡says¡¡Plato£»¡¡who¡¡has¡¡killed¡¡one¡¡nearly¡¡related¡¡to¡¡him£»¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡himself£»¡¡not¡¡by¡¡an¡¡order¡¡of¡¡the¡¡magistrate£»¡¡not¡¡to¡¡avoid¡¡ignominy£»¡¡but¡¡through¡¡pusillanimity¡¡shall¡¡be¡¡punished¡££§10£§¡¡The¡¡Roman¡¡law¡¡punished¡¡this¡¡action¡¡when¡¡it¡¡was¡¡not¡¡committed¡¡through¡¡pusillanimity£»¡¡through¡¡weariness¡¡of¡¡life£»¡¡through¡¡impatience¡¡in¡¡pain£»¡¡but¡¡from¡¡a¡¡criminal¡¡despair¡£¡¡The¡¡Roman¡¡law¡¡acquitted¡¡where¡¡the¡¡Greek¡¡condemned£»¡¡and¡¡condemned¡¡where¡¡the¡¡other¡¡acquitted¡£
Plato's¡¡law¡¡was¡¡formed¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡Laced£¿monian¡¡institutions£»¡¡where¡¡the¡¡orders¡¡of¡¡the¡¡magistrate¡¡were¡¡absolute£»¡¡where¡¡shame¡¡was¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡of¡¡miseries£»¡¡and¡¡pusillanimity¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡of¡¡crimes¡£¡¡The¡¡Romans¡¡had¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡those¡¡refined¡¡ideas£»¡¡theirs¡¡was¡¡only¡¡a¡¡fiscal¡¡law¡£
During¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡republic£»¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡law¡¡at¡¡Rome¡¡against¡¡suicides£»¡¡this¡¡action¡¡is¡¡always¡¡considered¡¡by¡¡their¡¡historians¡¡in¡¡a¡¡favourable¡¡light£»¡¡and¡¡we¡¡never¡¡meet¡¡with¡¡any¡¡punishment¡¡inflicted¡¡upon¡¡those¡¡who¡¡committed¡¡it¡£
Under¡¡the¡¡first¡¡emperors£»¡¡the¡¡great¡¡families¡¡of¡¡Rome¡¡were¡¡continually¡¡destroyed¡¡by¡¡criminal¡¡prosecutions¡£¡¡The¡¡custom¡¡was¡¡then¡¡introduced¡¡of¡¡preventing¡¡judgment¡¡by¡¡a¡¡voluntary¡¡death¡£¡¡In¡¡this¡¡they¡¡found¡¡a¡¡great¡¡advantage£º¡¡they¡¡had¡¡an¡¡honourable¡¡interment£»¡¡and¡¡their¡¡wills¡¡were¡¡executed£»¡¡because¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡law¡¡against¡¡suicides¡££§11£§¡¡But¡¡when¡¡the¡¡emperors¡¡became¡¡as¡¡avaricious¡¡as¡¡cruel£»¡¡they¡¡deprived¡¡those¡¡who¡¡destroyed¡¡themselves¡¡of¡¡the¡¡means¡¡of¡¡preserving¡¡their¡¡estates¡¡by¡¡rendering¡¡it¡¡criminal¡¡for¡¡a¡¡person¡¡to¡¡make¡¡away¡¡with¡¡himself¡¡through¡¡a¡¡criminal¡¡remorse¡£
What¡¡I¡¡have¡¡been¡¡saying¡¡of¡¡the¡¡motive¡¡of¡¡the¡¡emperors¡¡is¡¡so¡¡true£»¡¡that¡¡they¡¡consented¡¡that¡¡the¡¡estates¡¡of¡¡suicides¡¡should¡¡not¡¡be¡¡confiscated¡¡when¡¡the¡¡crime¡¡for¡¡which¡¡they¡¡killed¡¡themselves¡¡was¡¡not¡¡punished¡¡with¡¡confiscation¡££§12£§
10¡£¡¡That¡¡Laws¡¡which¡¡seem¡¡contrary¡¡proceed¡¡sometimes¡¡from¡¡the¡¡same¡¡Spirit¡£¡¡In¡¡our¡¡time¡¡we¡¡give¡¡summons¡¡to¡¡people¡¡in¡¡their¡¡own¡¡houses£»¡¡but¡¡this¡¡was¡¡not¡¡permitted¡¡among¡¡the¡¡Romans¡££§13£§
A¡¡summons¡¡was¡¡a¡¡violent¡¡action£»£§14£§¡¡and¡¡a¡¡kind¡¡of¡¡warrant¡¡for¡¡seizing¡¡the¡¡body£»£§15£§¡¡hence¡¡it¡¡was¡¡no¡¡more¡¡allowed¡¡to¡¡summon¡¡a¡¡person¡¡in¡¡his¡¡own¡¡house¡¡than¡¡it¡¡is¡¡now¡¡allowed¡¡to¡¡arrest¡¡a¡¡person¡¡in¡¡his¡¡own¡¡house¡¡for¡¡debt¡£
Both¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡and¡¡our¡¡laws¡¡admit¡¡of¡¡this¡¡principle¡¡alike£»¡¡that¡¡every¡¡man¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡have¡¡his¡¡own¡¡house¡¡for¡¡an¡¡asylum£»¡¡where¡¡he¡¡should¡¡suffer¡¡no¡¡violence¡££§16£§
11¡£¡¡How¡¡to¡¡compare¡¡two¡¡different¡¡Systems¡¡of¡¡Laws¡£¡¡In¡¡France¡¡the¡¡punishment¡¡for¡¡false¡¡witnesses¡¡is¡¡capital£»¡¡in¡¡England¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡£¡¡Now£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to¡¡judge¡¡which¡¡of¡¡these¡¡two¡¡laws¡¡is¡¡the¡¡best£»¡¡we¡¡must¡¡add¡¡that¡¡in¡¡France¡¡the¡¡rack¡¡is¡¡used¡¡for¡¡criminals£»¡¡but¡¡not¡¡in¡¡England£»¡¡that¡¡in¡¡France¡¡the¡¡accused¡¡is¡¡not¡¡allowed¡¡to¡¡produce¡¡his¡¡witnesses£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡they¡¡very¡¡seldom¡¡admit¡¡of¡¡what¡¡are¡¡called¡¡justifying¡¡circumstances¡¡in¡¡favour¡¡of¡¡the¡¡prisoner£»¡¡in¡¡England¡¡they¡¡allow¡¡of¡¡witnesses¡¡on¡¡both¡¡sides¡£¡¡These¡¡three¡¡French¡¡laws¡¡form¡¡a¡¡close¡¡and¡¡well¡connected¡¡system£»
and¡¡so¡¡do¡¡the¡¡three¡¡English¡¡laws¡£¡¡The¡¡law¡¡of¡¡England£»¡¡which¡¡does¡¡not¡¡allow¡¡of¡¡the¡¡racking¡¡of¡¡criminals£»¡¡has¡¡but¡¡very¡¡little¡¡hope¡¡of¡¡drawing¡¡from¡¡the¡¡accused¡¡a¡¡confession¡¡of¡¡his¡¡crime£»¡¡for¡¡this¡¡reason¡¡it¡¡invites¡¡witnesses¡¡from¡¡all¡¡parts£»¡¡and¡¡does¡¡not¡¡venture¡¡to¡¡discourage¡¡them¡¡by¡¡the¡¡fear¡¡of¡¡a¡¡capital¡¡punishment¡£¡¡The¡¡French¡¡law£»¡¡which¡¡has¡¡one¡¡resource¡¡more£»¡¡is¡¡not¡¡afraid¡¡of¡¡intimidating¡¡the¡¡witnesses£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡contrary£»¡¡reason¡¡requires¡¡they¡¡should¡¡be¡¡intimidated£»¡¡it¡¡listens¡¡only¡¡to¡¡the¡¡witnesses¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side£»¡¡which¡¡are¡¡those¡¡produced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡attorney¡general£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡fate¡¡of¡¡the¡¡accused¡¡depends¡¡entirely¡¡on¡¡their¡¡testimony¡££§17£§¡¡But¡¡in¡¡England¡¡they¡¡admit¡¡of¡¡witnesses¡¡on¡¡both¡¡sides£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡affair¡¡is¡¡discussed¡¡in¡¡some¡¡measure¡¡between¡¡them£»¡¡consequently¡¡false¡¡witness¡¡is¡¡there¡¡less¡¡dangerous£»¡¡the¡¡accused¡¡having¡¡a¡¡remedy¡¡against¡¡the¡¡false¡¡witness¡¡which¡¡he¡¡has¡¡not¡¡in¡¡France¡£¡¡Wherefore£»¡¡to¡¡determine¡¡which¡¡of¡¡those¡¡systems¡¡is¡¡most¡¡agreeable¡¡to¡¡reason£»¡¡we¡¡must¡¡take¡¡them¡¡each¡¡as¡¡a¡¡whole¡¡and¡¡compare¡¡them¡¡in¡¡their¡¡entirety¡£
12¡£¡¡That¡¡Laws¡¡which¡¡appear¡¡the¡¡same¡¡are¡¡sometimes¡¡really¡¡different¡£¡¡The¡¡Greek¡¡and¡¡Roman¡¡laws¡¡inflicted¡¡the¡¡same¡¡punishment¡¡on¡¡the¡¡receiver¡¡as¡¡on¡¡the¡¡thief£»£§18£§¡¡the¡¡French¡¡law¡¡does¡¡the¡¡same¡£¡¡The¡¡former¡¡acted¡¡rationally£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡does¡¡not¡£¡¡Among¡¡the¡¡Greeks¡¡and¡¡Romans¡¡the¡¡thief¡¡was¡¡condemned¡¡to¡¡a¡¡pecuniary¡¡punishment£»¡¡which¡¡ought¡¡also¡¡to¡¡be¡¡inflicted¡¡on¡¡the¡¡receiver£»¡¡for¡¡every¡¡man¡¡that¡¡contributes¡¡in¡¡what¡¡shape¡¡soever¡¡to¡¡a¡¡damage¡¡is¡¡obliged¡¡to¡¡repair¡¡it¡£¡¡But¡¡as¡¡the¡¡punishment¡¡of¡¡theft¡¡is¡¡capital¡¡with¡¡us£»¡¡the¡¡receiver¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡punished¡¡like¡¡the¡¡thief¡¡without¡¡carrying¡¡things¡¡to¡¡excess¡£¡¡A¡¡receiver¡¡may¡¡act¡¡innocently¡¡on¡¡a¡¡thousand¡¡occasions£º¡¡the¡¡thief¡¡is¡¡always¡¡culpable£»¡¡one¡¡hinders¡¡the¡¡conviction¡¡of¡¡a¡¡crime£»¡¡the¡¡other¡¡commits¡¡it£»¡¡in¡¡one¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡is¡¡passive£»¡¡the¡¡other¡¡is¡¡active£»¡¡the¡¡thief¡¡must¡¡surmount¡¡more¡¡obstacles£»¡¡and¡¡his¡¡soul¡¡must¡¡be¡¡more¡¡hardened¡¡against¡¡the¡¡laws¡£
The¡¡civilians¡¡have¡¡gone¡¡further£»¡¡they¡¡look¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡receiver¡¡as¡¡more¡¡odious¡¡than¡¡the¡¡thief£»£§19£§¡¡for¡¡were¡¡it¡¡not¡¡for¡¡the¡¡receiver¡¡the¡¡theft£»¡¡say¡¡they£»¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡long¡¡concealed¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡again¡¡might¡¡be¡¡right¡¡when¡¡there¡¡was¡¡only¡¡a¡¡pecuniary¡¡punishment£»¡¡the¡¡affair¡¡in¡¡question¡¡was¡¡a¡¡damage¡¡done£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡receiver¡¡was¡¡generally¡¡better¡¡able¡¡to¡¡repair¡¡it£»¡¡but¡¡when¡¡the¡¡punishment¡¡became¡¡capital£»¡¡they¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡directed¡¡by¡¡other¡¡principles¡£
13¡£¡¡That¡¡we¡¡must¡¡not¡¡separate¡¡Laws¡¡from¡¡the¡¡End¡¡for¡¡which¡¡they¡¡were¡¡made£º¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡Laws¡¡on¡¡Theft¡£¡¡When¡¡a¡¡thief¡¡was¡¡caught¡¡in¡¡the¡¡act£»¡¡this¡¡was¡¡called¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Romans¡¡a¡¡manifest¡¡theft£»¡¡when¡¡he¡¡was¡¡not¡¡detected¡¡till¡¡some¡¡time¡¡afterwards£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡non¡manifest¡¡theft¡£
The¡¡law¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Twelve¡¡Tables¡¡ordained¡¡that¡¡a¡¡manifest¡¡thief¡¡should¡¡be¡¡whipped¡¡with¡¡rods¡¡and¡¡condemned¡¡to¡¡slavery¡¡if¡¡he¡¡had¡¡attained¡¡the¡¡age¡¡of¡¡puberty£»¡¡or¡¡only¡¡whipped¡¡if¡¡he¡¡was¡¡not¡¡of¡¡ripe¡¡age£»¡¡but¡¡as¡¡for¡¡the¡¡nonmanifest¡¡thief£»¡¡he¡¡was¡¡only¡¡condemned¡¡to¡¡a¡¡fine¡¡of¡¡double¡¡the¡¡value¡¡of¡¡what¡¡he¡¡had¡¡stolen¡£
When¡¡the¡¡Porcian¡¡laws¡¡abolished¡¡the¡¡custom¡¡of¡¡whipping¡¡the¡¡citizens¡¡with¡¡rods£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡reducing¡¡them¡¡to¡¡slavery£»¡¡the¡¡manifest¡¡thief¡¡was¡¡condemned¡¡to¡¡a¡¡payment¡¡of¡¡fourfold£»¡¡and¡¡they¡¡still¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡condemn¡¡the¡¡non¡manifest¡¡thief¡¡to¡¡a¡¡payment¡¡of¡¡double¡££§20£§
It¡¡seems¡¡very¡¡odd¡¡that¡¡these¡¡laws¡¡should¡¡make¡¡such¡¡a¡¡difference¡¡in¡¡the¡¡quality¡¡of¡¡those¡¡two¡¡crimes£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡punishments¡¡they¡¡inflicted¡£¡¡And£»¡¡indeed£»¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡thief¡¡was¡¡detected¡¡either¡¡before¡¡or¡¡after¡¡he¡¡had¡¡carried¡¡the¡¡stolen¡¡goods¡¡to¡¡the¡¡place¡¡intended£»¡¡this¡¡was¡¡a¡¡circumstance¡¡which¡¡did¡¡not¡¡alter¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crime¡£¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡at¡¡all¡¡question¡¡that¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡laws¡¡in¡¡relation¡¡to¡¡theft¡¡was¡¡borrowed¡¡from¡¡the¡¡Laced£¿monian¡¡institutions¡£¡¡Lycurgus£»¡¡with¡¡a¡¡view¡¡of¡¡rendering¡¡the¡¡citizens¡¡dextrous¡¡and¡¡cunning£»¡¡ordained¡¡that¡¡children¡¡should¡¡be¡¡practised¡¡in¡¡thieving£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡those¡¡who¡¡were¡¡caught¡¡in¡¡the¡¡act¡¡should¡¡be¡¡severely¡¡whipped¡£¡¡This¡¡occasioned¡¡among¡¡the¡¡Greeks£»¡¡and¡¡afterwards¡¡among¡¡the¡¡Romans£»¡¡a¡¡great¡¡difference¡¡between¡¡a¡¡manifest¡¡and¡¡a¡¡non¡manifest¡¡theft¡££§21£§
Among¡¡the¡¡Romans£»¡¡a¡¡slave¡¡who¡¡had¡¡been¡¡guilty¡¡of¡¡stealing¡¡was¡¡thrown¡¡from¡¡the¡¡Tarpeian¡¡rock¡£¡¡Here¡¡the¡¡Laced£¿monian¡¡institutions¡¡were¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡question£»¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡of¡¡Lycurgus¡¡in¡¡relation¡¡to¡¡theft¡¡were¡¡not¡¡made¡¡for¡¡slaves£»¡¡to¡¡deviate¡¡from¡¡them¡¡in¡¡this¡¡respect¡¡was¡¡in¡¡reality¡¡conforming¡¡to¡¡them¡£
At¡¡Rome£»¡¡when¡¡a¡¡person¡¡of¡¡unripe¡¡age¡¡happened¡¡to¡¡be¡¡caught¡¡in¡¡the¡¡act£»¡¡the¡¡pr£¿tor¡¡ordered¡¡him¡¡to¡¡be¡¡whipped¡¡with¡¡rods¡¡according¡¡to¡¡his¡¡pleasure£»¡¡as¡¡was¡¡practised¡¡at¡¡Sparta¡£¡¡All¡¡this¡¡had¡¡a¡¡more¡¡remote¡¡origin¡£¡¡The¡¡Laced£¿monians¡¡had¡¡derived¡¡these¡¡usages¡¡from¡¡the¡¡Cretans£»¡¡and¡¡Plato£»£§22£§¡¡who¡¡wants¡¡to¡¡prove¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Cretan¡¡institutions¡¡were¡¡designed¡¡for¡¡war£»¡¡cites¡¡the¡¡following£»¡¡namely£»¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡bearing¡¡pain¡¡in¡¡individual¡¡combats£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡thefts¡¡which¡¡have¡¡to¡¡be¡¡concealed¡£
As¡¡the¡¡civil¡¡laws¡¡depend¡¡on¡¡the¡¡political¡¡institutions£»¡¡because¡¡they¡¡are¡¡made¡¡for¡¡the¡¡same¡¡society£»¡¡whenever¡¡there¡¡is¡¡a¡¡des