the spirit of laws-第132章

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5。　Cases　in　which　we　may　judge　by　the　Principles　of　the　civil　Law　in　limiting　the　Principles　of　the　Law　of　Nature。　An　Athenian　law　obliged　children　to　provide　for　their　fathers　when　fallen　into　poverty；＇6＇　it　excepted　those　who　were　born　of　a　courtesan；＇7＇　those　whose　chastity　had　been　infamously　prostituted　by　their　father；　and　those　to　whom　he　had　not　given　any　means　of　gaining　a　livelihood。＇8＇

The　law　considered　that；　in　the　first　case；　the　father　being　uncertain；　he　had　rendered　the　natural　obligation　precarious；　that　in　the　second；　he　had　sullied　the　life　he　had　given；　and　done　the　greatest　injury　he　could　do　to　his　children　in　depriving　them　of　their　reputation；　that　in　the　third；　he　had　rendered　insupportable　a　life　which　had　no　means　of　subsistence。　The　law　suspended　the　natural　obligation　of　children　because　the　father　had　violated　his；　it　looked　upon　the　father　and　the　son　as　no　more　than　two　citizens；　and　determined　in　respect　to　them　only　from　civil　and　political　views；　ever　considering　that　a　good　republic　ought　to　have　a　particular　regard　to　manners。　I　am　apt　to　think　that　Solon's　law　was　a　wise　regulation　in　the　first　two　cases；　whether　that　in　which　nature　has　left　the　son　in　ignorance　with　regard　to　his　father；　or　that　in　which　she　even　seems　to　ordain　he　should　not　own　him；　but　it　cannot　be　approved　with　respect　to　the　third；　where　the　father　had　only　violated　a　civil　institution。

6。　That　the　Order　of　succession　or　Inheritance　depends　on　the　Principles　of　political　or　civil　Law；　and　not　on　those　of　the　Law　of　Nature。　The　Voconian　law　ordained　that　no　woman　should　be　left　heiress　to　an　estate；　not　even　if　she　had　an　only　child。　Never　was　there　a　law；　says　St。　Augustine；　more　unjust。＇9＇　A　formula　of　Marculfus　treats　that　custom　as　impious　which　deprives　daughters　of　the　right　of　succeeding　to　the　estate　of　their　fathers。＇10＇　Justinian　gives　the　appellation　of　barbarous　to　the　right　which　the　males　had　formerly　of　succeeding　in　prejudice　to　the　daughters。＇11＇　These　notions　proceeded　from　their　having　considered　the　right　of　children　to　succeed　to　their　father's　possessions　as　a　consequence　of　the　law　of　nature；　which　it　is　not。

The　law　of　nature　ordains　that　fathers　shall　provide　for　their　children；　but　it　does　not　oblige　them　to　make　them　their　heirs。　The　division　of　property；　the　laws　of　this　division；　and　the　succession　after　the　death　of　the　person　who　has　had　this　division　can　be　regulated　only　by　the　community；　and　consequently　by　political　or　civil　laws。

True　it　is　that　a　political　or　civil　order　frequently　demands　that　children　should　succeed　to　their　father's　estate；　but　it　does　not　always　make　this　necessary。

There　may　be　some　reasons　given　why　the　laws　of　our　fiefs　appoint　that　the　eldest　of　the　males；　or　the　nearest　relatives　of　the　male　side；　should　have　all；　and　the　females　nothing；　and　why；　by　the　laws　of　the　Lombards；＇12＇　the　sisters；　the　natural　children；　the　other　relatives；　and；　in　their　default；　the　treasury　might　share　the　inheritance　with　the　daughters。

It　was　regulated　in　some　of　the　dynasties　of　China　that　the　brothers　of　the　emperor　should　succeed　to　the　throne；　and　that　the　children　should　not。　If　they　were　willing　that　the　prince　should　have　a　certain　degree　of　experience；　if　they　feared　his　being　too　young；　and　if　it　had　become　necessary　to　prevent　eunuchs　from　placing　children　successively　on　the　throne；　they　might　very　justly　establish　a　like　order　of　succession；　and　when　some　writers　have　treated　these　brothers　as　usurpers；　they　have　judged　only　by　ideas　received　from　the　laws　of　their　own　countries。＇13＇

According　to　the　custom　of　Numidia；＇14＇　Desalces；　brother　of　Gala；　succeeded　to　the　kingdom；　not　Massinissa；　his　son。　And　even　to　this　day；　among　the　Arabs　in　Barbary；　where　each　village　has　its　chief；　they　adhere　to　this　ancient　custom；　by　choosing　the　uncle；　or　some　other　relative　to　succeed。＇15＇

There　are　monarchies　merely　elective；　and　since　it　is　evident　that　the　order　of　succession　ought　to　be　derived　from　the　political　or　civil　laws；　it　is　for　these　to　decide　in　what　cases　it　is　agreeable　to　reason　that　the　succession　be　granted　to　children；　and　in　what　cases　it　ought　to　be　given　to　others。

In　countries　where　polygamy　is　established；　the　prince　has　many　children；　and　the　number　of　them　is　much　greater　in　some　of　these　countries　than　in　others。　There　are　states＇16＇　where　it　is　impossible　for　the　people　to　maintain　the　children　of　the　king；　they　might　therefore　make　it　a　law　that　the　crown　shall　devolve；　not　on　the　king's　children；　but　on　those　of　his　sister。

A　prodigious　number　of　children　would　expose　the　state　to　the　most　dreadful　civil　wars。　The　order　of　succession　which　gives　the　crown　to　the　children　of　the　sister；　the　number　of　whom　is　not　larger　than　those　of　a　prince　who　has　only　one　wife；　must　prevent　these　inconveniences。

There　are　people　among　whom　reasons　of　state；　or　some　maxims　of　religion；　have　made　it　necessary　that　the　crown　should　be　always　fixed　in　a　certain　family：　hence；　in　India；　proceeds　the　jealousy　of　their　tribes；＇17＇　and　the　fear　of　losing　the　descent；　they　have　there　conceived　that　never　to　want　princes　of　the　blood　royal；　they　ought　to　take　the　children　of　the　eldest　sister　of　the　king。

A　general　maxim：　it　is　an　obligation　of　the　law　of　nature　to　provide　for　our　children；　but　to　make　them　our　successors　is　an　obligation　of　the　civil　or　political　law。　Hence　are　derived　the　different　regulations　with　respect　to　bastards　in　the　different　countries　of　the　world；　these　are　according　to　the　civil　or　political　laws　of　each　country。

7。　That　we　ought　not　to　decide　by　the　Precepts　of　Religion　what　belongs　only　to　the　Law　of　Nature。　The　Abassines　have　a　most　severe　lent　of　fifty　days；　which　weakens　them　to　such　a　degree　that　for　a　long　time　they　are　incapable　of　business：　the　Turks　do　not　fail　to　attack　them　after　their　lent。＇18＇　Religion　ought；　in　favour　of　the　natural　right　of　self…defence；　to　set　bounds　to　these　customs。

The　Jews　were　obliged　to　keep　the　Sabbath；　but　it　was　an　instance　of　great　stupidity　in　this　nation　not　to　defend　themselves　when　their　enemies　chose　to　attack　them　on　this　day。＇19＇

Cambyses；　laying　siege　to　Pelusium；　set　in　the　first　rank　a　great　number　of　those　animals　which　the　Egyptians　regarded　as　sacred；　the　consequence　was　that　the　soldiers　of　the　garrison　durst　not　molest　them。　Who　does　not　see　that　self…defence　is　a　duty　superior　to　every　precept？

8。　That　we　ought　not　to　regulate　by　the　Principles　of　the　canon　Law　Things　which　should　be　regulated　by　those　of　the　civil　Law。　By　the　civil　law　of　the　Romans；＇20＇　he　who　took　a　thing　privately　from　a　sacred　place　was　punished　only　for　the　guilt　of　theft；　by　the　canon　law；　he　was　punished　for　the　crime　of　sacrilege。＇21＇　The　canon　law　takes　cognizance　of　the　place；　the　civil　laws　of　the　fact。　But　to　attend　only　to　the　place　is　neither　to　reflect　on　the　nature　and　definition　of　a　theft；　nor　on　the　nature　and　definition　of　sacrilege。

As　the　husband　may　demand　a　separation　by　reason　of　the　infidelity　of　his　wife；　the　wife　might　formerly　demand　it　on　account　of　the　infidelity　of　the　husband。＇22＇　This　custom；　contrary　to　a　regulation　made　in　the　Roman　laws；＇23＇　was　introduced　into　the　ecclesiastic　court；＇24＇　where　nothing　was　regarded　but　the　maxims　of　canon　law；　and　indeed；　if　we　consider　marriage　as　a　thing　merely　spiritual；　and　as　relating　only　to　the　things　of　another　life；　the　violation　is　in　both　cases　the　same；　but　the　political　and　civil　laws　of　almost　all　nations　have；　with　reason；　made　a　distinction　between　them。　They　have　required　from　the　women　a　degree　of　reserve　and　continency　which　they　have　not　exacted　from　the　men；　because　in　women；　a　violation　of　chastity　supposes　a　renunciation　of　all　virtue；　because　women；　by　violating　the　laws　of　marriage；　quit　the　state　of　their　natural　dependence；　because　nature　has　marked　the　infidelity　of　women　with　certain　signs；　and；　in　fine；　because　the　children　of　the　wife　born　in　adultery　necessarily　belong　and　are　an　expense　to　the　husband；　while　the　children　produced　by　the　adultery　of　the　husband　are　not　the　wife's；　nor　are　an　expense　to　the　wife。

9。　That　Things　which　ought　to　be　regulated　by　the