the spirit of laws-第115章
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odies and societies； as well as private people； were under the necessity of borrowing a necessity but too urgent； were it only to repair the ravages of armies； the rapacity of magistrates； the extortions of collectors； and the corrupt practices daily introduced； for never was there at one period so much poverty and opulence。 The senate； being possessed of the executive power； granted； through necessity； and oftentimes through favour； a permission of borrowing from Roman citizens； so as to enact decrees for that particular purpose。 But even these decrees were discredited by the law； for they might give occasion to the people's insisting upon new rates of interest； which would augment the danger of losing the capital； while they made a further extension of usury。＇62＇ I shall ever repeat it； that mankind are governed not by extremes； but by principles of moderation。
He pays least； says Ulpian； who pays latest。＇63＇ This decides the question whether interest be lawful； that is； whether the creditor can sell time； and the debtor buy it。
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1。 The salt made use of for this purpose in Abyssinia has this defect； that it is continually wasting away。
2。 Herodotus； Bk。 i； tells us that the Lydians found out the art of coining money； the Greeks learned it from them： the Athenian coin had the impression of their ancient ox。 I have seen one of those pieces in the Earl of Pembroke's cabinet。
3。 It is an ancient custom in Algiers for the father of a family to have a treasure concealed in the earth。 Laugier de Tassis； History of the Kingdom of Algiers。
4。 C？sar； De Bello Civ。； iii。
5。 Tacitus； Annals； vi。 17。
6。 The Laws of the Saxons； 18。
7。 See chapter 12 of this book。
8。 Supposing a mark of eight ounces of silver to be worth forty…nine livres； and copper twenty sols per pound。
9。 History of the Civil Wars of the Spaniards in the West Indies。
10。 In France； Law's project was called by this name。
11。 Socrates； History of the Church； ii。 17。
12。 There is much specie in a place when there is more specie than paper； there is little； when there is more paper than specie。
13。 With the expenses of carriage and insurance deducted。
14。 In 1744。
15。 See book xx。 23。
16。 Pliny； Natural History； xxxiii； art。 13。
17。 Ibid。
18。 They received ten ounces of copper for twenty。
19。 They received sixteen ounces of copper for twenty。
20。 Pliny； xxxiii； art。 5。
21。 Freinshemius； dec。 2； v。
22。 Ibid。 They struck also； says the same author； half denarii； called quinarii； and quarters； called sesterces。
23。 An eighth； according to Bud？us； according to other authors； a seventh。
24。 Pliny； Natural History； xxxiii； art。 13。
25。 Ibid。
26。 See Father Joubert； Science of Medals； p。 59； Paris； 1739。
27。 Extract of Virtues and Vices。
28。 See Savote； part II； 12； and Le Journal des Savants of the 28th of July； 1681； on a discovery of fifty thousand medals。
29。 See Savote； ibid。
30。 Ibid。
31。 Chapter 21。
32。 England。
33。 We do not speak here of gold and silver considered as a merchandise。
34。 Tacitus； Annals； vi。 16。
35。 Usury and interest among the Romans signified the same thing。
36。 See Dionysius Halicarnassus； who has described it so well。
37。 Usur？ semisses； trientes； quadrantes。 See the several titles of the digests and codes on usury； and especially Leg。 17； with the note； ff。 de usuris。
38。 See Appius's speech on this subject； in Dionysius Halicarnassus； v。
39。 Annals； vi。 16。
40。 In the year of Rome 388。 Livy； vi。 25。
41。 Unciaria usura。 Ibid。； vii。 16。
42。 Annals； vi。 16。
43。 Under the consulate of L。 Manlius Torquatus and C。 Plautius； according to Livy； vii。 27。 This is the law mentioned by Tacitus； Annals； vi。
44。 Semiunciaria usura。
45。 As Tacitus says。 Annals； vi。
46。 This law was passed at the instance of M。 Genucius； tribune of the people。 Livy； vii； towards the end。
47。 Verteri jam more foenus receptum erat。 Appian。 On the Civil War； i。
48。 Permisit eos legibus agere。 Ibid。； and theEpitome of Livy； lxiv。
49。 In the year of Rome 663。
50。 Book xi。 19。
51。 Letters to Atticus； v。 21。
52。 Livy； xxxv。 7。
53。 Ibid。
54。 In the year 561 of Rome。 See Livy； xxv。 7。
55。 Annals； vi。 16。
56。 In the year 615 of Rome。
57。 See Letters to Atticus； iv。 15； 16。
58。 Ibid。； vi。 i。
59。 Pompey having lent 600 talents to King Ariobarzanes； made that prince pay him thirty Attic talents every thirty days。 Ibid。； v。 21； vi。 1。
60。 Ut neque Salaminiis； neque cui eis dedisset； fraudi esset。 Ibid。
61。 Cicero's edict fixed it to one per cent a month； with interest upon interest at the expiration of the year。 With regard to the farmers of the republic； he engaged them to grant a respite to their debtors； if the latter did not pay at the time fixed； he awarded the interestmentioned in the bond。 Ibid。； vi。 1。
62。 See what Lucretius says； in the 21st letter to Atticus； v。 There was even a general Senatus Consultum； to fix the rate of interest at one per cent per month。 See the same letter。
63。 Leg。 12； ff。 de verb。 signif。
Book XXIII。 Of Laws in the Relation They Bear to the Number of Inhabitants
1。 Of Men and Animals with respect to the Multiplication of their Species。
Delight of human kind；＇1＇ and gods above； Parent of Rome； propitious Queen of Love；
For when the rising spring adorns the mead； And a new scene of nature stands display'd； When teeming buds； and cheerful greens appear； And western gales unlock the lazy year； The joyous birds thy welcome first express； Whose native songs thy genial fire confess： Then savage beasts bound o'er their slighted food； Struck with thy darts； and tempt the raging flood： All nature is thy gift； earth； air； and sea； Of all that breathes the various progeny； Stung with delight； is goaded on by thee。 O'er barren mountains； o'er the flow'ry plain； The leafy forest； and the liquid main； Extends thy uncontroll'd and boundless reign。 Thro' all the living regions thou dost move； And scatter'st where thou go'st the kindly seeds of love。
The females of brutes have an almost constant fecundity。 But in the human species； the manner of thinking； the character； the passions； the humour； the caprice； the idea of preserving beauty； the pain of child…bearing； and the fatigue of a too numerous family； obstruct propagation in a thousand different ways。
2。 Of Marriage。 The natural obligation of the father to provide for his children has established marriage； which makes known the person who ought to fulfil this obligation。 The people＇2＇ mentioned by Pomponius Mela＇3＇ had no other way of discovering him but by resemblance。
Among civilised nations； the father is that person on whom the laws； by the ceremony of marriage； have fixed this duty； because they find in him the man they want。＇4＇
Among brutes this is an obligation which the mother can generally perform； but it is much more extensive among men。 Their children indeed have reason； but this comes only by slow degrees。 It is not sufficient to nourish them； we must also direct them： they can already live； but they cannot govern themselves。
Illicit conjunctions contribute but little to the propagation of the species。 The father； who is under a natural obligation to nourish and educate his children； is not then fixed； and the mother； with whom the obligation remains； finds a thousand obstacles from shame； remorse； the constraint of her sex； and the rigour of laws； and besides； she generally wants the means。
Women who have submitted to public prostitution cannot have the convenience of educating their children： the trouble of education is incompatible with their station； and they are so corrupt that they can have no protection from the law。
It follows from all this that public continence is naturally connected with the propagation of the species。
3。 Of the Condition of Children。 It is a dictate of reason that when there is a marriage； children should follow the station or condition of the father； and that when there is not； they can belong to the mother only。＇5＇
4。 Of Families。 It is almost everywhere a custom for the wife to pass into the family of the husband。 The contrary is witho
