the spirit of laws-第107章
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two most powerful nations in the world had waged with the people of Africa； to the alliances they had contracted； and to the trade they had carried on with those countries。
84。 Book vii。 3。
85。 See his Periplus； under the article on Carthage。
86。 See Herodotus； Melpomene； iv。 43； on the obstacles which Sataspes encountered。
87。 See the charts and relations in the first volume of Collection of Voyages that Contributed to the Establishment of the East India Company； part i； p。 201。 This weed covers the surface of the water in such a manner as to be scarcely perceived； and ships can only pass through it with a stiff gale。
88。 Pliny； v。 i； tells us the same thing； speaking of Mount Atlas： Noctibus micare crebris ignibus； tibiarum cantu timpanorumque sonitu strepere； neminem interdiu cerni。
89。 Mr。 Dodwell。 See his Dissertation on Hanno's Periplus。
90。 Of Wonderful Things。
91。 Book vi。
92。 Book iii。
93。 Mons argentarius。
94。 He had some share in their management。
95。 See Festus Avienus。
96。 Strabo； iii； towards the end。
97。 He was rewarded by the senate of Carthage。
98。 Freinshemius； Supplement to Livy； dec。 2； vi。
99。 In the parts subject to the Carthaginians。
100。 Justin； xliii。 5。
101。 See Strabo； x。
102。 He confirmed the liberty of the city of Amisus； an Athenian colony which had enjoyed a popular government； even under the kings of Persia。 Lucullus having taken Sinone and Amisus； restored them to their liberty； and recalled the inhabitants； who had fled on board their ships。
103。 See what Appian writes concerning the Phanagoreans； the Amisians； and the Synopians； in his treatise Of the War against Mithridates。
104。 See Appian； in regard to the immense treasures which Mithridates employed in his wars； those which he had buried； those which he frequently lost by the treachery of his own people； and those which were found after his death。
105。 See Appian Of the War against Mithridates。
106。 Ibid。
107。 He lost at one time 170；000 men； yet he soon recruited his armies。
108。 In the Considerations on the Causes of the Rise and Declension of the Roman Grandeur。
109。 As Plato has observed。 Laws； iv。
110。 Polybius； v。
111。 See the Considerations on the Causes of the Rise and Declension of the Roman Grandeur。
112。 Ibid。
113。 Leg。 5； § 2； ff。 De Captivis。
114。 Qu？ mercimoniis publice pr？fuit Leg。 1； Cod。 de natural。 liberis。
115。 Leg。 ad barbaricum。 Cod。 qu？ res exportari non debeant。
116。 Leg。 2； Cod。 de commerc。 et mercator。
117。 Procopius； War of the Persians； i。
118。 See the Considerations on the Causes of the Rise and Declension of the Roman Grandeur。
119。 Pliny； vi。 28； and Strabo； xvi。
120。 Ibid。
121。 The caravans of Aleppo and Suez carry thither annually to the value of about two millions of livres； and as much more clandestinely； the royal vessel of Suez carries thither also two millions。
122。 Book ii； p。 181； ed。 1587。
123。 Book vi。 23。
124。 He says； book ii； that the Romans employed a hundred and twenty ships in that trade； and； in book xvii； that the Grecian kings scarcely employed twenty。
125。 Book i； 2。
126。 Book i； 13。
127。 Our best maps place Peter's tower in the hundredth degree of longitude； and about the fortieth of latitude。
128。 Suetonius； Life of Claudius； 18； Leg。 7。 Cod。 Theodos。 de naviculariis。
129。 Book viii； tit。 4； § 9。
130。 Toto titulo； ff。 de incend； ruin。 et naufrag。； Cod。 de naufragiis； Leg。 3； ff。 ad leg。 Cornel； de sicariis。
131。 Leg。 1； Cod。 de naufragiis。
132。 Book xi； tit。 3； § 2。
133。 See Aristotle； Politics； i。 9； 10。
134。 See in Marca Hispanica； the constitutions of Aragon； in the years 1228 and 1231； and in Brussel； the agreement； in the year 1206； between the King； the Countess of Champagne； and Guy of Dampierre。
135。 Stow； Survey of London； iii； p。 54。
136。 The edict passed at Baville； 4th of April； 1392。
137。 In France the Jews were slaves in mortmain； and the lords their successors。 Mr。 Brussel mentions an agreement made in the year 1206； between the King and Thibaut； Count of Champagne； by which it was agreed that the Jews of the one should not lend in the lands of the other。
138。 It is known that under Philip Augustus and Philip the Long； the Jews who were chased from France took refuge in Lombardy； and that there they gave to foreign merchants and travellers secret letters； drawn upon those to whom they had entrusted their effects in France； which were accepted。
139。 See Nov。 83 of the Emperor Leo； which revokes the law of Basil his father。 This law of Basil is in Hermenopulus； under the name of Leo； iii； tit。 7； § 27。
140。 See the account of Pirard； part II； 15。
141。 This； in the language of the ancients； is the state which founded the colony。
142。 Except the Carthaginians； as we see by the treaty which put an end to the first Punic war。
143。 Polybius； iii。
144。 The King of Persia obliged himself by treaty not to sail with any vessel of war beyond the Cyanean rocks and the Chelidonean isles。 Plutarch； Cimon。
145。 Aristotle； Of Wonderful Things； Livy； dec。 2； vii。
146。 Book ii； p。 170。
147。 This has been already shown in a small treatise written by the author about twenty years ago； which has been almost entirely incorporated in the present work。
148。 See Frezier； Voyages。
149。 According to Lord Anson； Europe receives every year from Brazil two millions sterling in gold； which is found in sand at the foot of the mountains； or in the beds of rivers。 When I wrote the little treatise mentioned in the first note of this chapter； the returns from Brazil were far from being so considerable an item as they are at present。
Book XXII。 Of Laws in Relation to the Use of Money
1。 The Reason of the Use of Money。 People who have little merchandise； as savages； and among civilised nations those who have only two or three species； trade by exchange。 Thus the caravans of Moors that go to Timbuctoo； in the heart of Africa； have no need of money； for they exchange their salt for gold。 The Moor puts his salt in a heap； and the Negro his dust in another； if there is not gold enough； the Moor takes away some of his salt； or the Negro adds more gold； till both parties are agreed。
But when a nation traffics with a great variety of merchandise； money becomes necessary； because a metal easily carried from place to place saves the great expenses which people would be obliged to be at if they always proceeded by exchange。
As all nations have reciprocal wants； it frequently happens that one is desirous of a large quantity of the other's merchandise； when the latter will have very little of theirs； though with respect to another nation the case is directly opposite。 But when nations have money； and proceed by buying and selling； those who take most merchandise pay the balance in specie。 And there is this difference； that； in the case of buying； the trade carried on is in proportion to the wants of the nation that has the greatest demands； while in bartering； the trade is only according to the wants of the nation whose demands are the fewest； without which the latter would be under an impossibility of balancing its accounts。
2。 Of the Nature of Money。 Money is a sign which represents the value of all merchandise。 Metal is taken for this sign； as being durable；＇1＇ because it is consumed but little by use； and because； without being destroyed； it is capable of many divisions。 A precious metal has been chosen as a sign； as being most portable。 A metal is most proper for a common measure； because it can be easily reduced to the same standard。 Every state fixes upon it a particular impression； to the end that the form may correspond with the standard and the weight； and that both may be known by inspection only。 The Athenians； not having the use of metals； made use of oxen；＇2＇ and the Romans of sheep； but one ox is not the same as another ox in the manner that one piece of metal may be the same as another。
A specie is the sign of the value of merchandise； paper is the sign of the value of specie； and when it is of the right sort； it represents this value in such a manner that as to the effects produced by it
