the path of empire-第3章

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ng　England　into　the　arms　of　Europe。　He　took　advantage　of　the　divisions　of　the　Old　World　to　establish　the　priority　of　the　United　States　in　American　affairs；　but　he　failed　in　his　later　attempt　to　unite　all　the　Americas　in　cordial　cooperation。　Earnest　as　was　his　desire　and　hard　as　he　strove　in　1825　when　he　had　become　President　with　Clay　as　his　Secretary　of　State；　Adams　found　that　the　differences　in　point　of　view　between　the　United　States　and　the　other　American　powers　were　too　great　to　permit　a　Pan…American　policy。　The　Panama　Congress　on　which　he　built　his　hopes　failed；　and　for　fifty　years　the　project　lay　dormant。

Under　the　popular　name　of　the　Monroe　Doctrine；　however；　Adams's　policy　has　played　a　much　larger　part　in　world　affairs　than　he　expected。　Without　the　force　of　law　either　in　this　country　or　between　nations；　this　doctrine　took　a　firm　hold　of　the　American　imagination　and　became　a　national　ideal；　while　other　nations　have　at　least　in　form　taken　cognizance　of　it。　The　Monroe　Doctrine　has　survived　because　Adams　did　not　invent　its　main　tenets　but　found　them　the　dominating　principles　of　American　international　politics；　his　work；　like　that　of　his　contemporary　John　Marshall；　was　one　of　codification。　But　not　all　those　who　have　commented　on　the　work　of　Adams　have　possessed　his　analytical　mind；　and　many　have　confused　what　was　fundamental　in　his　pronouncement　with　what　was　temporary　and　demanded　by　the　emergency　of　the　time。

Always　the　American　people　have　stood；　from　the　first　days　of　their　migration　to　America；　for　the　right　of　the　people　of　a　territory　to　determine　their　own　development。　First　they　have　insisted　that　their　own　right　to　work　out　their　political　destiny　be　acknowledged　and　made　safe。　For　this　they　fought　the　Revolution。　It　has　followed　that　they　have　in　foreign　affairs　tried　to　keep　their　hands　free　from　entanglements　with　other　countries　and　have　refrained　from　interference　with　foreign　politics。　This　was　the　burden　of　Washington's　〃Farewell　Address；〃　and　it　was　a　message　which　Jefferson　reiterated　in　his　inaugural。　These　are　the　permanent　principles　which　have　controlled　enlightened　American　statesmen　in　their　attitude　toward　the　world；　from　the　days　of　John　Winthrop　to　those　of　Woodrow　Wilson。

It　was　early　found；　however；　that　the　affairs　of　the　immediate　neighbors　of　the　United　States　continually　and　from　day　to　day　affected　the　whole　texture　of　American　life　and　that　actually　they　limited　American　independence　and　therefore　could　not　be　left　out　of　the　policy　of　the　Government。　The　United　States　soon　began　to　recognize　that　there　was　a　region　in　the　affairs　of　which　it　must　take　a　more　active　interest。　As　early　as　1780　Thomas　Pownall；　an　English　colonial　official；　predicted　that　the　United　States　must　take　an　active　part　in　Cuban　affairs。　In　1806　Madison；　then　Secretary　of　State；　had　instructed　Monroe；　Minister　to　Great　Britain；　that　the　Government　began　to　broach　the　idea　that　the　whole　Gulf　Stream　was　within　its　maritime　jurisdiction。　The　message　of　Monroe　was　an　assertion　that　the　fate　of　both　the　Americas　was　of　immediate　concern　to　the　safety　of　the　United　States；　because　the　fate　of　its　sister　republics　intimately　affected　its　own　security。　This　proved　to　be　an　enduring　definition　of　policy；　because　for　many　years　there　was　a　real　institutional　difference　between　the　American　hemisphere　and　the　rest　of　the　world　and　because　oceanic　boundaries　were　the　most　substantial　that　the　world　affords。

Adams；　however；　would　have　been　the　last　to　claim　that　his　method　of　securing　the　fundamental　purposes　of　the　United　States　was　itself　fundamental。　It　is　particularly　important　for　Americans　to　make　a　distinction　between　the　things　which　they　have　always　wished　to　obtain　and　the　methods　which　they　have　from　time　to　time　used。　To　build　a　policy　today　on　the　alleged　isolation　of　the　American　continents　would　be　almost　as　absurd　as　to　try　to　build　a　government　on　the　belief　in　Divine　Right。　The　American　continents　are　no　longer　separated　from　the　rest　of　the　world　by　their　national　institutions；　because　the　spirit　of　these　institutions　has　permeated　much　of　Europe；　Asia；　and　even　Africa。　No　boundaries；　not　even　oceans；　can　today　prohibit　international　interference。　But　while　the　particular　method　followed　in　1823　is　no　longer　appropriate；　the　ends　which　the　United　States　set　out　to　attain　have　remained　the　same。　Independence；　absolute　and　complete；　including　the　absence　of　all　entanglements　which　might　draw　the　country　into　other　peoples'　quarrels；　the　recognition　of　a　similar　independence　in　all　other　peoples；　which　involves　both　keeping　its　own　hands　off　and　also　strongly　disapproving　of　interference　by　one　nation　with　anotherthese　have　been　the　guiding　principles　of　the　United　States。　These　principles　the　Government　has　maintained　by　such　means　as　seemed　appropriate　to　the　time。　In　colonial　days　the　people　of　America　fought　in　courts　for　their　charter　rights；　at　the　time　of　the　Revolution；　by　arms　for　their　independence　from　England；　during　the　Napoleonic　wars；　for　their　independence　from　the　whole　system　of　Europe。　The　Monroe　Doctrine　declared　that　to　maintain　American　independence　from　the　European　system　it　was　necessary　that　the　European　system　be　excluded　from　the　Americas。　In　entering　the　Great　War　in　the　twentieth　century　the　United　States　has　recognized　that　the　system　of　autocracy　against　which　Monroe　fulminated　must　disappear　from　the　entire　world　if；　under　modern　industrial　conditions；　real　independence　is　to　exist　anywhere。

It　is　the　purpose　of　the　following　chapters　to　trace　the　expansion　of　American　interests　in　the　light　of　the　Monroe　Doctrine　and　to　explain　those　controversies　which　accompanied　this　growth　and　taxed　the　diplomatic　resources　of　American　Secretaries　of　State　from　the　times　of　Adams　and　Webster　and　Seward　to　those　of　Blaine　and　Hay　and　Elihu　Root。　The　diplomacy　of　the　Great　War　is　reserved　for　another　volume　in　this　Series。



CHAPTER　II。　Controversies　With　Great　Britain

No　two　nations　have　ever　had　more　intimate　relationships　than　the　United　States　and　Great　Britain。　Speaking　the　same　language　and　owning　a　common　racial　origin　in　large　part；　they　have　traded　with　each　other　and　in　the　same　regions；　and　geographically　their　territories　touch　for　three　thousand　miles。　During　the　nineteenth　century　the　coastwise　shipping　of　the　United　States　was　often　forced　to　seek　the　shelter　of　the　British　West　Indies。　The　fisherfolk　of　England　and　America　mingled　on　the　Grand　Bank　of　Newfoundland　and　on　the　barren　shores　of　that　island　and　of　Labrador；　where　they　dried　their　fish。　Indians；　criminals；　and　game　crossed　the　Canadian　boundary　at　will；　streams　flowed　across　it；　and　the　coast　cities　vied　for　the　trade　of　the　interior；　indifferent　to　the　claims　of　national　allegiance。　One　cannot　but　believe　that　this　intimacy　has　in　the　long　run　made　for　friendship　and　peace；　but　it　has　also　meant　constant　controversy；　often　pressed　to　the　verge　of　war　by　the　pertinacious　insistence　of　both　nations　on　their　full　rights　as　they　saw　them。

The　fifteen　years　following　Adams's　encounter　with　Canning　saw　the　gradual　accumulation　of　a　number　of　such　disputes；　which　made　the　situation　in　1840　exceptionally　critical。　Great　Britain　was　angered　at　the　failure　of　the　United　States　to　grant　her　the　right　to　police　the　seas　for　the　suppression　of　the　slave　trade；　while　the　United　States；　with　memories　of　the　vicious　English　practice　of　impressment　before　the　War　of　1812；　distrusted　the　motives　of　Great　Britain　in　asking　for　this　right。　Nearly　every　mile　of　the　joint　boundary　in　North　America　was　in　dispute；　owing　to　the　vagueness　of　treaty　descriptions　or　to　the　errors　of　surveyors。　Twelve　thousand　square　miles　and　a　costly　American　fort　were　involved；　arbitration　had　failed；　rival　camps　of　lumberjacks　daily　imperiled　peace；　and　both　the　Maine　Legislature　and　the　National　Congress　had　voted　money　for　defense。　In　a　New　York　jail　Alexander　McLeod　was　awaiting　trial　in　a　state　court　for　the　murder　of　an　American　on　the　steamer　Caroline；　which　a　party　of　Canadian　militia　had　cut　out　from　the　American　shore　near　Buffalo　and　had　sent　to　destruction　over　Niagara　Falls。　The　British　Government；　holding　that　the　Caroline