pathology of lying-第3章
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even a suspicion of vindictiveness。 False accusations of young children against parents would hardly seem to have such a basis； and yet in some instances this fact has come out clearly。 Grudge…formation on the part of young individuals has all through our work been one of the extraordinary findings； capacity for it varies tremendously in different individuals。
Several forms of excessive lying； particularly those practised by children and adolescents； are not discussed by us because they are largely age phenomena and only verge upon the pathological as they are carried over into wider fields of conduct。 The fantasies of children； and the almost obsessional lying in some young adolescents； too； we avoid。 There is much shading of typical pathological lying into； on the one hand； the really insane types； and； on the other hand； into the lying which is to be explained by quite normal reactions or where the tendency to mendacity is only partially developed。
It has been a matter of no small interest to us that in planning this monograph we conceived it necessary to consider part of our material under the head of episodic pathological lying and that later we had to omit this chapter。 Surely there had been casesso it seemed to us at firstwhere purposeless lying had been indulged in for a comparatively short time； particularly during the adolescent period； without expression of a prevaricating tendency before or after this time。 When we came to review our material with this chapter in mind we found no sufficient verification of the fact that there was any such thing as episodic pathological lying； apart from peculiar manifestations in cases of epilepsy； hysteria； and other mental abnormalities。 A short career of extensive lying； not unfrequently met with in work for juvenile courts and other social agencies； seems； judging from our material； to be always so mixed up with other delinquencies or unfortunate sex experiences that the lying； after all； cannot be regarded as purposeless。 It is indulged in most often in an attempt to disguise undesirable truths。 That false accusations and even self…accusations are engaged in for the same purpose goes without saying。 The girl who donned man's clothes； left home and lived for months a life of lies was seeking an adventure which would offset intolerable home conditions。 The young woman who after seeing something of the pleasures of the world was placed in a strict religious home where she told exaggerated stories about her own bad behavior； was endeavoring to get more freedom elsewhere。 A young fellow whom we found to be a most persistent and consistent liar was discovered to have been already well schooled in the art of professional criminalistic self…protection。 So it has gone。 Investigation of each of these episodic cases has shown the fabrications to emanate either from a distinctly abnormal personality or to partake of a character which rules them out of the realm of pathological lying。 In our cases of temporary adolescent psychoses lying was rarely found a puzzling feature； the basic nature of the case was too easily discoverable。
A fair question to ask at this point is whether pathological lying is ever found to be the only delinquency of the given individual。 We should hesitate to deny the possibility of its being the sole offense； but in our study of a long list of cases； and after review of those reported by other authors； it seems practically impossible to find a case of this。 The tendencies soon carry the person over to the production of other delinquencies； and if these do not come in the category of punishable offenses； at least； through the trouble and suffering caused others； they are to be regarded essentially as misconduct。
The reverse of the above question deserves a word or two of attention； are there marked cases of delinquency which do not show lying？ Surveying the figures of Ferriani＇6＇ who enumerated thousands of lies； belonging to his nine classes of prevarications； which a group of 500 young offenders indulged in； one would think that all delinquents are liars many times over。 But as a matter of fact we have been profoundly astonished to discover that a considerable percentage of the cases we have studied； even of repeated offenders； have proved notably truthful。 Occasionally the very person who will engage in a major form of delinquency will hesitate to lie。 Our experience shows this to be less true； however； of sex delinquency than perhaps of any other。 This statement is based on general observations； the accurate correlations have not been worked up。 Occasionally the professional criminal of many misdeeds is proud of his uprightness in other spheres of behavior； including veracity。 But even here one would have to classify carefully； for it is obvious that the typical swindler would find lying his best cloak of disguise。 On the other hand； a bold safe…blower may look down with scorn upon a form of criminality which demands constant mendacity。
＇6＇ loc。 cit。
Realizing that pathological lying is a type of delinquency； and following the rule that for explanation of conduct tendencies one must go to youthful beginnings； we have attempted to gain the fullest possible information about the fundamentals of developmental and family history； early environment； and early mental experiences。 Fortunately we have often been able to obtain specific and probably accurate data on heredity。 The many cases which have been only partially studied are not included。 Successive cross…section studies have been made in a number of cases； and it has been possible to get a varying amount of after…history。 Observational； historical； and analytical data thus accumulated have given us a particularly favorable opportunity for discerning the bases of this special delinquent tendency。 The results of the various kinds of social treatment which have been undertaken are not the least interesting of our facts。
To enumerate the results obtained on the many mental tests given in most cases seems quite unnecessary for the purpose of this monograph。 We have referred to a few points of special interest and rarely have designated the results on tests in our series。 In general； the reader probably will be better off with merely the statement of the principal findings and of the mental diagnosis。
Of much interest for the present subject is the development of psychological studies of testimony or report。 Because of the natural expectation that the pathological liar might prove to be an unreliable witness our studies on this point will be offered in detail。 For years we have been giving a picture memory test on the order of one used extensively abroad。 This ‘‘Aussage'' Test is the one described as Test VI in our monograph on Practical Mental Classification。＇7＇ More recently our studies on the psychology of testimony have led us into wider fields of observation； and here the group of cases now under discussion may have to stand by themselves。 The picture； the record of testimony on which is given in some detail in our case histories； is that of a butcher's shop with objects and actions that are universally comprehended。 After careful and fair explanation of what is about to be undertaken； the picture is exposed for ten seconds； and then the examinee is asked to give a free recital of all he saw。 When he states that no more is remembered he is questioned on omitted details。 （All told； there are about 50 details of varying importance in the picture。） During the progress of this part of the examination he is asked if he saw 7 objects which might well be in a butcher shop； but which are not in the picture。 This is the test for susceptibility to suggestion。 All points are carefully scored。 Norms on this test； as on many others； it seems hardly fair to give by averagesthere is much variation according to mentality and even personality groups。 Practically all of our cases of pathological lying range above the age of young childhood； so it is not necessary here to discuss the characteristics of young children's testimony。 Perhaps it is sufficient to say that the ordinary individual recalls voluntarily or upon questioning upwards of 20 items； and does not gi
