心理学与生活-第98章
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reliably elicited by the individual’s reinforcement history
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3。 Learning by social imitation is by observation of others’ behavior;
without actual performance of the response
4。 Contemporary theories emphasize importance of both cognitive and
behavioral processes
B。 Mischel’s Cognitive…Affective Personality Theory
1。 Posits that response to a specific environmental input depends on a
person’s:
a) Encoding strategies; the way ining information is
processed:
(i) Selective attending
(ii) Categorization
(iii) Making associations
b) Expectancies and beliefs: anticipation of likely outes for
given actions in particular situations
c) Affects: your feelings and emotions; including physiological
responses
d) Goals and values: outes and affective states valued by the
individual
e) petencies and self…regulatory plans; rules developed by the
individual for guiding performance; setting goals; and
evaluating effectiveness
2。 Nature of variables for a given individual result from history of
observations and interactions with others and with inanimate aspects
of the physical environment
3。 Beliefs about others’ personalities es from tracking the way
different situations bring out different behaviors
C。 Bandura’s Cognitive Social…Learning Theory
1。 bines principles of learning with an emphasis on human
interactions in social settings
2。 Stresses the cognitive processes involved in acquiring and
maintaining patterns of behavior and; thus; personality
3。 Critical constructs
a) Reciprocal determinism: the examining of all ponents if one
wishes to understand human behavior; personality; and
social ecology pletely
b) Observational learning: the process by which the individual
changes his or her behavior; based on observations of another
individual’s behavior
c) Self…efficacy: the belief that one can perform adequately in a
particular situation。 Self…efficacy judgments include:
(i) Vicarious experience
(ii) Persuasion
(iii) Monitoring of emotional arousal when thinking
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about a task
4。 Self…efficacy acknowledges the importance of the environment;
including perceptions of supportiveness or unsupportiveness of that
environment
D。 Cantor’s Social Intelligence Theory
1。 Social intelligence refers to the expertise the individual brings to his or
her experience of life tasks
2。 Three types of individual differences are defined:
a) Choice of life goals
b) Knowledge relevant to social interactions
c) Strategies for implementing goals
3。 Social intelligence offers a new perspective on how personality
predicts consistency
E。 Evaluation of Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories
1。 One set of criticisms points out that theories generally overlook
emotion as an important ponent of personality
a) Emphasize rational; information…processing variables
b) Emotions are perceived as by…products of thoughts and
behavior; instead of being assigned specific; independent
importance
c) Theories do not fully recognize the impact of unconscious
motivation on both behavior and affect
2。 A second set of criticisms focuses on vague explanations relative to
creation of personal constructs and petencies
a) Cognitive theories focus on the individual’s perception of
current behavior setting serves to obscure the individual’s
history
b) Kelly’s theory is more a conceptual system than a theory; as it
focuses on structure and processes; saying little about content
of personal constructs
VI。 Self Theories
A。 William James was the earliest advocate of theories addressing how each individual
manages his or her sense of self。 James identified three ponents of the self…experience:
1。 Material me: the bodily self; along with surrounding physical objects
2。 Social me: the individual’s awareness of how others view him or her
3。 Spiritual me: the self that monitors private thoughts and feelings
B。 Dynamic Aspects of Self…Concepts
1。 Self…concept is a dynamic mental structure that motivates; interprets;
organizes; mediates; and regulates intrapersonal and interpersonal
behaviors and processes
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2。 ponents of self…concept include
a) Memories about one’s self
b) Beliefs about one’s traits; motives; values; and abilities
c) Ideal self: the self that one would most like to bee
d) Possible selves that one contemplates enacting
e) Positive or negative evaluations of one’s self (self…esteem)
f) Beliefs about what others think of one’s self
3。 Self…concept includes schemas about the self; self…schemas; that allow
one to organize information about one’s self and influence the way
one processes information about others
4。 Possible selves are “the ideal selves that we would very much like to
bee;” and are also “the selves we could bee and the selves we
are afraid of being”
C。 Self…Esteem and Self…Presentation
1。 Self…esteem is a generalized evaluation of the self; influencing thoughts;
moods; and behavior
a) Low self…esteem may be characterized (in part) by less
certainty about the self and may include the feeling that one
does not know much about one’s self
b) Doubt in one’s ability to perform a task may see engagement
in self…handicapping behavior; in which one deliberately
sabotages one’s own performance; for purposes of
(i) Having a ready…made excuse for failure that does not
imply lack of ability
(ii) Failure can be blamed on low effort; without finding
out if one really had the ability to make it
2。 Self…presentation is an aspect of self…esteem; explaining behavioral
differences between individuals with high and low self…esteem
a) Individuals with high self…esteem present themselves to the
world as ambitious; aggressive risk takers
b) Individuals with low self…esteem present themselves as
cautious and prudent
c) Both of these presentations are for public consumption
d) Self…monitoring; a personality trait related to the individual’s
habitual style of self…presentation; is the tendency to regulate
behavior to meet social demands or to create a desired social
impression
D。 The Cultural Construction of Self
1。 Individualistic cultures encourage independent construals of self
2。 Collectivist cultures encourage interdependent construals of self
E。 Evaluation of Self…Theories
1。 Self theories succeed at capturing the individual’s concept of their
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own personality and how they wish to be perceived by others
2。 Critics of self theory approach to personality argue against its limitless
boundaries。 Because many issues are relevant to the self and to the
self…concept; it is not always clear which factors are most important for
predicting behavior
3。 Emphasis on the self as a social construct is not entirely consistent
with evidence that some facets of personality may be heritable
VII。 paring Personality Theories
A。 The Five Most Important Differences in Assumptions about Personality
1。 Heredity versus Environment
a) Trait theories are split on this issue
b) Freudian theory depends heavily on heredity
c) Humanistic; social…learning; cognitive; and self theories
emphasize either
(i) Environment as a determinant of behavior
(ii) Interaction with environment as a source of
personality development and differences
2。 Learning Processes versus Innate Laws of Behavior
a) Trait theories are (still) divided
b) Freudian theory favors inner determinant view
c) Humanists posit change as a result of experience
d) Social…learning; cognitive; and self theories posit that behavior
and personality change as a result of learned experiences
3。 Emphasis on Past; Present; or Future
a) Trait theories emphasize past causes
b) Freudian theory stresses past events of early childhood
c) Social…learning theories focuses on past reinforcements and
present contingencies
d) Humanistic theories emphasize present phenomenal reality
or future goals
e) Cognitive and self theories emphasize past an