心理学与生活-第102章
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sell the first 600 copies printed； this work would go through eight additional printings during
Freud’s lifetime。
Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy； he made
many other substantial contributions to psychology。 These include the recognition of the
importance of sexuality and unconscious processes； a fully developed system of personality； and
an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires and the constraints of society。 His work
has influenced so many aspects of our thinking that he is often not given full credit for the
development of his ideas。 Freud’s many detractors are quick to point out that his theories are not
based on empirical research。 While this is certainly true； just because they lack empirical evidence
does not mean that they are wrong。 It just means that they are less likely to be right。 Because of the
breadth of his intellectual contributions； he remains the most cited psychologist in Psychology and
Life and most parable texts。
Carl Gustav Jung （1875–1961）
Carl Jung was born in Kesswil； Switzerland； the son of a pastor。 From childhood； Jung was
fascinated by the problems of religion and spiritualism。 He received his M。D。 from the University of
Basel in 1901； with an emphasis in psychiatry。 Having read Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams； he
sought the master out and soon became Freud’s most famous disciple。 An eventual split between
Freud and Jung occurred； prompted by Jung’s belief that the psychosexual theory of development
was too restrictive。
Jung advanced his own brand of psychology； known as analytic psychology； introducing the
concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes。 Like Freud； Jung developed a large
following of loyal adherents。 In his later writings； Jung returned often to an analysis of religion and
mysticism； addressing themes that had fascinated him from his youth。
Neal Miller （b。 1909）
Neal Miller has been in the vanguard of American psychology for more than 30 years。 He sees
himself as a “builder of bridges between disciplines” and； indeed； his contributions run the gamut
from social…learning theory and frustration…aggression hypotheses； to physiological research into
brain stimulation and control of autonomic responses through biofeedback。
Miller received his undergraduate training at the University of Washington and his master’s degree
at Stanford University。 In 1935； he earned his doctorate at Yale； the school with which he would be
associated for the next 30 years。 In light of the strongly behavioristic approach his research has
taken； it is interesting to note that he received considerable formal training in psychoanalytic theory
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CHAPTER 14： UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY
and practice。 Perhaps his participation at the Institute of Human Relations at Yale； where he was in
contact with anthropologists and sociologists primarily concerned with the influence of the social
milieu on the individual； impressed him with the limitations of analysis。
With the publication of two landmark books； Social Learning and Imitation in 1941 and Personality
and Psychotherapy in 1950； he and his colleague； John Dollard； created a sensation。 These works
demonstrated that social learning； psychoanalytic treatment； and the origins of neurosis could be
understood in terms of classical learning theory。 The intelligent； innovative nature of Miller’s
acplishment brought him a Newb…Cleveland Prize in 1951 and a Warren Medal in 1954。
In the same year that Personality and Psychotherapy was published； Miller applied his theories of
behavior modification to victims of bat neurosis with a high degree of success； essentially
abandoning the psychoanalytic approach to therapy。 True to his self…portrait as a “bridge…builder；”
he translated the implications of his research and therapeutic techniques to a more physiologically
based line of inquiry； investigation into the physiology of learned responses。 He used electrical
stimulation of parts of the brains of animal participants to elicit motivational sensations such as
fear； pain； and pleasure； and demonstrated that an electrical or chemical stimulation of the brain
may bring about sensations of hunger。 Following the example of Pavlov； he continues to explore a
wide range of learned visceral responses。 In accord with what he has already discovered about
learned visceral responses； he designed a lightweight electromechanical instrument that alerts
children with scoliosis whenever they lapse into incorrect posture。 The results of this treatment
have been encouraging。
Although he is now an emeritus professor； Miller remains active in his research and conceptual
contributions to the field of behavioral medicine。 Miller served as president of the American
Psychological Association in 1961； was awarded the National Medal of Science； and has been
elected to the National Academy of Sciences。
Carl Rogers （1902–1987）
Carl Rogers； the founder of client…centered therapy and one of the best…known figures in humanistic
psychology； is often described by friends as the “man who gave people permission to be
themselves。” A firm believer in the basic goodness of human beings； Rogers based his approach to
therapy and education on the assumption that individuals； when given the proper opportunity and
encouragement； can decide for themselves the best course to follow。 This doctrine placed the mild…
mannered Rogers squarely in the face of controversy throughout his career； as he attempted to go
beyond the mere formulation of pleasant…sounding philosophies； to implement his notions in the
context of social institutions。
A student of agriculture； Rogers made an abrupt change of plans after traveling to China with a
student religious group。 He began to see that he would only truly satisfy his needs and interests in
a milieu that encouraged munication and offered him an opportunity to help others。 He
enrolled in a theological seminary； but soon found the emphasis on dogma and hierarchy to be
contradictory to his highly personal approach。 He switched to the study of psychology； a discipline
in which he felt he would be better able to develop and act on his ideas。 He received his bachelor’s
degree from the University of Wisconsin in 1924。 After graduating from Columbia Teachers College；
he became director of the Rochester Child Guidance Clinic in New York and there began to
construct the techniques that would eventually evolve into Rogerian； or client…centered； therapy。
Rogers finally joined forces with a group of like…minded psychologists at the Western Institute for
Behavioral Sciences in California。 This nonprofit center is involved in several projects； including a
tremendously popular two…week summer course of encounter groups。 An even more ambitious
project is designed to put physicians in closer touch with the “human” and ethical aspects of
medical practice。
Throughout his career； Rogers continued to believe that the purpose of therapy was to assist the
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
client in realizing his or her potential； and he conducted some of the first empirical studies of the
process and effectiveness of psychotherapy。 He was instrumental in elevating humanistic
psychology to its stature as a “Third Force” in psychology； and was elected president of the
American Psychological Association in 1947。
In spite of all his successes； Rogers continued to be criticized from many sides。 Even friends and
colleagues described his views as overly optimistic—particularly his faith that tense situations
such as racial confrontations can be resolved by person…centered therapy techniques。 Nevertheless；
Rogers； if anything； grew more optimistic。 During the last few years of his life； in response to the
growing popularity of his client…centered therapy； he trained facilitators （therapists） in Germany；
Japan； and Brazil。 His notable works include Client…Centered Therapy （1951） and On Being a
Person （1961）。
TIMELINE
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1900 Freud published what many believe was his greates
