manifesto of the communist party-第3章

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increases　capital。　　These　labourers；　who　must　sell　themselves

piece…meal；　are　a　commodity；　like　every　other　article　of

commerce；　and　are　consequently　exposed　to　all　the　vicissitudes　of

competition；　to　all　the　fluctuations　of　the　market。



Owing　to　the　extensive　use　of　machinery　and　to　division　of

labour；　the　work　of　the　proletarians　has　lost　all　individual

character；　and　consequently；　all　charm　for　the　workman。　　He

becomes　an　appendage　of　the　machine；　and　it　is　only　the　most

simple；　most　monotonous；　and　most　easily　acquired　knack；　that　is

required　of　him。　　Hence；　the　cost　of　production　of　a　workman　is

restricted；　almost　entirely；　to　the　means　of　subsistence　that　he

requires　for　his　maintenance；　and　for　the　propagation　of　his

race。　　But　the　price　of　a　commodity；　and　therefore　also　of

labour；　is　equal　to　its　cost　of　production。　　In　proportion

therefore；　as　the　repulsiveness　of　the　work　increases；　the　wage

decreases。　　Nay　more；　in　proportion　as　the　use　of　machinery　and

division　of　labour　increases；　in　the　same　proportion　the　burden

of　toil　also　increases；　whether　by　prolongation　of　the　working

hours；　by　increase　of　the　work　exacted　in　a　given　time　or　by

increased　speed　of　the　machinery；　etc。



Modern　industry　has　converted　the　little　workshop　of　the

patriarchal　master　into　the　great　factory　of　the　industrial

capitalist。　　Masses　of　labourers；　crowded　into　the　factory；　are

organised　like　soldiers。　　As　privates　of　the　industrial　army　they

are　placed　under　the　command　of　a　perfect　hierarchy　of　officers

and　sergeants。　　Not　only　are　they　slaves　of　the　bourgeois　class；

and　of　the　bourgeois　State；　they　are　daily　and　hourly　enslaved　by

the　machine；　by　the　over…looker；　and；　above　all；　by　the

individual　bourgeois　manufacturer　himself。　　The　more　openly　this

despotism　proclaims　gain　to　be　its　end　and　aim；　the　more　petty；

the　more　hateful　and　the　more　embittering　it　is。



The　less　the　skill　and　exertion　of　strength　implied　in　manual

labour；　in　other　words；　the　more　modern　industry　becomes

developed；

the　more　is　the　labour　of　men　superseded　by　that　of　women。

Differences　of　age　and　sex　have　no　longer　any　distinctive　social

validity　for　the　working　class。　　All　are　instruments　of　labour；

more　or　less　expensive　to　use；　according　to　their　age　and　sex。



No　sooner　is　the　exploitation　of　the　labourer　by　the

manufacturer；

so　far；　at　an　end；　that　he　receives　his　wages　in　cash；　than　he　is

set　upon　by　the　other　portions　of　the　bourgeoisie；　the　landlord；

the　shopkeeper；　the　pawnbroker；　etc。



The　lower　strata　of　the　middle　class　　the　small　tradespeople；

shopkeepers；　retired　tradesmen　generally；　the　handicraftsmen　and

peasants　　all　these　sink　gradually　into　the　proletariat；　partly

because　their　diminutive　capital　does　not　suffice　for　the　scale

on　which　Modern　Industry　is　carried　on；　and　is　swamped　in　the

competition　with　the　large　capitalists；　partly　because　their

specialized　skill　is　rendered　worthless　by　the　new　methods　of

production。　　Thus　the　proletariat　is　recruited　from　all　classes

of　the　population。



The　proletariat　goes　through　various　stages　of　development。

With　its　birth　begins　its　struggle　with　the　bourgeoisie。　　At

first　the　contest　is　carried　on　by　individual　labourers；　then　by

the　workpeople　of　a　factory；　then　by　the　operatives　of　one　trade；

in　one　locality；　against　the　individual　bourgeois　who　directly

exploits　them。　　They　direct　their　attacks　not　against　the

bourgeois　conditions　of　production；　but　against　the　instruments

of　production　themselves；　they　destroy　imported　wares　that

compete　with　their　labour；　they　smash　to　pieces　machinery；　they

set　factories　ablaze；　they　seek　to　restore　by　force　the　vanished

status　of　the　workman　of　the　Middle　Ages。



At　this　stage　the　labourers　still　form　an　incoherent　mass

scattered　over　the　whole　country；　and　broken　up　by　their　mutual

competition。　　If　anywhere　they　unite　to　form　more　compact　bodies；

this　is　not　yet　the　consequence　of　their　own　active　union；　but　of

the　union　of　the　bourgeoisie；　which　class；　in　order　to　attain　its

own　political　ends；　is　compelled　to　set　the　whole　proletariat　in

motion；　and　is　moreover　yet；　for　a　time；　able　to　do　so。　　At　this

stage；　therefore；　the　proletarians　do　not　fight　their　enemies；

but　the　enemies　of　their　enemies；　the　remnants　of　absolute

monarchy；　the　landowners；　the　non…industrial　bourgeois；　the　petty

bourgeoisie。　　Thus　the　whole　historical　movement　is　concentrated

in　the　hands　of　the　bourgeoisie；　every　victory　so　obtained　is　a

victory　for　the　bourgeoisie。



But　with　the　development　of　industry　the　proletariat　not　only

increases　in　number；　it　becomes　concentrated　in　greater　masses；

its　strength　grows；　and　it　feels　that　strength　more。　　The　various

interests　and　conditions　of　life　within　the　ranks　of　the

proletariat　are　more　and　more　equalised；　in　proportion　as

machinery　obliterates　all　distinctions　of　labour；　and　nearly

everywhere　reduces　wages　to　the　same　low　level。　　The　growing

competition　among　the　bourgeois；　and　the　resulting　commercial

crises；　make　the　wages　of　the　workers　ever　more　fluctuating。　　The

unceasing　improvement　of　machinery；　ever　more　rapidly　developing；

makes　their　livelihood　more　and　more　precarious；　the　collisions

between　individual　workmen　and　individual　bourgeois　take　more　and

more　the　character　of　collisions　between　two　classes。　　Thereupon

the　workers　begin　to　form　combinations　（Trades　Unions）　against

the　bourgeois；　they　club　together　in　order　to　keep　up　the　rate　of

wages；　they　found　permanent　associations　in　order　to　make

provision　beforehand　for　these　occasional　revolts。　　Here　and

there　the　contest　breaks　out　into　riots。



Now　and　then　the　workers　are　victorious；　but　only　for　a　time。

The　real　fruit　of　their　battles　lies；　not　in　the　immediate

result；　but　in　the　ever…expanding　union　of　the　workers。　　This

union　is　helped　on　by　the　improved　means　of　communication　that

are　created　by　modern　industry　and　that　place　the　workers　of

different　localities　in　contact　with　one　another。　　It　was　just

this　contact　that　was　needed　to　centralise　the　numerous　local

struggles；　all　of　the　same　character；　into　one　national　struggle

between　classes。　　But　every　class　struggle　is　a　political

struggle。　　And　that　union；　to　attain　which　the　burghers　of　the

Middle　Ages；　with　their　miserable　highways；　required　centuries；

the　modern　proletarians；　thanks　to　railways；　achieve　in　a　few

years。



This　organisation　of　the　proletarians　into　a　class；　and

consequently　into　a　political　party；　is　continually　being　upset

again　by　the　competition　between　the　workers　themselves。　　But　it

ever　rises　up　again；　stronger；　firmer；　mightier。　　It　compels

legislative　recognition　of　particular　interests　of　the　workers；

by　taking　advantage　of　the　divisions　among　the　bourgeoisie

itself。　　Thus　the　ten…hours'　bill　in　England　was　carried。



Altogether　collisions　between　the　classes　of　the　old　society

further；　in　many　ways；　the　course　of　development　of　the

proletariat。

The　bourgeoisie　finds　itself　involved　in　a　constant　battle。

At　first　with　the　aristocracy；　later　on；　with　those　portions

of　the　bourgeoisie　itself；　whose　interests　have　become

antagonistic

to　the　progress　of　industry；　at　all　times；　with　the　bourgeoisie

of　foreign　countries。　　In　all　these　battles　it　sees　itself

compelled

to　appeal　to　the　proletariat；　to　ask　for　its　help；　and　thus；　to

drag

it　into　the　political　arena。　　The　bourgeoisie　itself；　therefore；

supplies　the　proletariat　with　its　own　instruments　of　political

and　general　education；　in　other　words；　it　furnishes　the

proletariat

with　weapons　for　fighting　the　bourgeoisie。



Further；　as　we　have　already　seen；　entire　sections　of　the　ruling

classes　are；　by　the　advance　of　industry；　precipitated　into　the

proletariat；　or　are　at　least　threatened　in　their　conditions　of

existence。　　These　also　supply　the　proletariat　with　fresh　elements

of　enlightenment　and　progress。



Finally；　in　ti