the prince-第16章
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r countries； so that with a knowledge of the aspect of one country one can easily arrive at a knowledge of others。 And the prince that lacks this skill lacks the essential which it is desirable that a captain should possess； for it teaches him to surprise his enemy； to select quarters； to lead armies； to array the battle； to besiege towns to advantage。
Philopoemen；＇*＇ Prince of the Achaeans； among other praises which writers have bestowed on him； is commended because in time of peace he never had anything in his mind but the rules of war； and when he was in the country with friends； he often stopped and reasoned with them： 〃If the enemy should be upon that hill； and we should find ourselves here with our army； with whom would be the advantage？ How should one best advance to meet him； keeping the ranks？ If we should wish to retreat； how ought we to pursue？〃 And he would set forth to them； as he went； all the chances that could befall an army； he would listen to their opinion and state his； confirming it with reasons； so that by these continual discussions there could never arise； in time of war； any unexpected circumstances that he could not deal with。
＇*＇ Philopoemen； 〃the last of the Greeks；〃 born 252 B。C。； died 183 B。C。
But to exercise the intellect the prince should read histories； and study there the actions of illustrious men； to see how they have borne themselves in war； to examine the causes of their victories and defeat； so as to avoid the latter and imitate the former； and above all do as an illustrious man did； who took as an exemplar one who had been praised and famous before him； and whose achievements and deeds he always kept in his mind； as it is said Alexander the Great imitated Achilles； Caesar Alexander； Scipio Cyrus。 And whoever reads the life of Cyrus； written by Xenophon； will recognize afterwards in the life of Scipio how that imitation was his glory； and how in chastity； affability； humanity； and liberality Scipio conformed to those things which have been written of Cyrus by Xenophon。 A wise prince ought to observe some such rules； and never in peaceful times stand idle； but increase his resources with industry in such a way that they may be available to him in adversity； so that if fortune chances it may find him prepared to resist her blows。
CHAPTER XV
CONCERNING THINGS FOR WHICH MEN； AND ESPECIALLY PRINCES； ARE PRAISED OR BLAMED
It remains now to see what ought to be the rules of conduct for a prince towards subject and friends。 And as I know that many have written on this point； I expect I shall be considered presumptuous in mentioning it again； especially as in discussing it I shall depart from the methods of other people。 But； it being my intention to write a thing which shall be useful to him who apprehends it； it appears to me more appropriate to follow up the real truth of the matter than the imagination of it； for many have pictured republics and principalities which in fact have never been known or seen； because how one lives is so far distant from how one ought to live； that he who neglects what is done for what ought to be done； sooner effects his ruin than his preservation； for a man who wishes to act entirely up to his professions of virtue soon meets with what destroys him among so much that is evil。
Hence it is necessary for a prince wishing to hold his own to know how to do wrong； and to make use of it or not according to necessity。 Therefore； putting on one side imaginary things concerning a prince； and discussing those which are real； I say that all men when they are spoken of； and chiefly princes for being more highly placed； are remarkable for some of those qualities which bring them either blame or praise； and thus it is that one is reputed liberal； another miserly； using a Tuscan term （because an avaricious person in our language is still he who desires to possess by robbery； whilst we call one miserly who deprives himself too much of the use of his own）； one is reputed generous； one rapacious； one cruel； one compassionate； one faithless； another faithful； one effeminate and cowardly； another bold and brave； one affable； another haughty； one lascivious； another chaste； one sincere； another cunning； one hard； another easy； one grave； another frivolous； one religious； another unbelieving； and the like。 And I know that every one will confess that it would be most praiseworthy in a prince to exhibit all the above qualities that are considered good； but because they can neither be entirely possessed nor observed； for human conditions do not permit it； it is necessary for him to be sufficiently prudent that he may know how to avoid the reproach of those vices which would lose him his state； and also to keep himself； if it be possible； from those which would not lose him it； but this not being possible； he may with less hesitation abandon himself to them。 And again； he need not make himself uneasy at incurring a reproach for those vices without which the state can only be saved with difficulty； for if everything is considered carefully； it will be found that something which looks like virtue； if followed； would be his ruin； whilst something else； which looks like vice； yet followed brings him security and prosperity。
CHAPTER XVI
CONCERNING LIBERALITY AND MEANNESS
Commencing then with the first of the above…named characteristics； I say that it would be well to be reputed liberal。 Nevertheless； liberality exercised in a way that does not bring you the reputation for it； injures you； for if one exercises it honestly and as it should be exercised； it may not become known； and you will not avoid the reproach of its opposite。 Therefore； any one wishing to maintain among men the name of liberal is obliged to avoid no attribute of magnificence； so that a prince thus inclined will consume in such acts all his property； and will be compelled in the end； if he wish to maintain the name of liberal； to unduly weigh down his people； and tax them； and do everything he can to get money。 This will soon make him odious to his subjects； and becoming poor he will be little valued by any one； thus； with his liberality； having offended many and rewarded few； he is affected by the very first trouble and imperilled by whatever may be the first danger； recognizing this himself； and wishing to draw back from it； he runs at once into the reproach of being miserly。
Therefore； a prince； not being able to exercise this virtue of liberality in such a way that it is recognized； except to his cost； if he is wise he ought not to fear the reputation of being mean； for in time he will come to be more considered than if liberal； seeing that with his economy his revenues are enough； that he can defend himself against all attacks； and is able to engage in enterprises without burdening his people； thus it comes to pass that he exercises liberality towards all from whom he does not take； who are numberless； and meanness towards those to whom he does not give； who are few。
We have not seen great things done in our time except by those who have been considered mean； the rest have failed。 Pope Julius the Second was assisted in reaching the papacy by a reputation for liberality； yet he did not strive afterwards to keep it up； when he made war on the King of France； and he made many wars without imposing any extraordinary tax on his subjects； for he supplied his additional expenses out of his long thriftiness。 The present King of Spain would not have undertaken or conquered in so many enterprises if he had been reputed liberal。 A prince； therefore； provided that he has not to rob his subjects； that he can defend himself； that he does not become poor and abject； that he is not forced to become rapacious； ought to hold of little account a reputation for being mean； for it is one of those vices which will enable him to govern。
And if any one should say： Caesar obtained empire by liberality； and many others have reached the highest positions by having been liberal； and by being considered so； I answer： Either you are a prince in fact； or in a way to become one。 In the first case this liberality is dangerous； in the second it is very necessary to be considered liberal； and Caesar was one of those
