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independent　republics　in　the　heart　of　their　own　dominions。

　　　　　In　order　to　understand　this；　it　must　be　remembered　that　in

those　days　the　sovereign　of　perhaps　no　country　in　Europe　was　able

to　protect；　through　the　whole　extent　of　his　dominions；　the　weaker

part　of　his　subjects　from　the　oppression　of　the　great　lords。

Those　whom　the　law　could　not　protect；　and　who　were　not　strong

enough　to　defend　themselves；　were　obliged　either　to　have　recourse

to　the　protection　of　some　great　lord；　and　in　order　to　obtain　it

to　become　either　his　slaves　or　vassals；　or　to　enter　into　a　league

of　mutual　defence　for　the　common　protection　of　one　another。　The

inhabitants　of　cities　and　burghs；　considered　as　single

individuals；　had　no　power　to　defend　themselves；　but　by　entering

into　a　league　of　mutual　defence　with　their　neighbours；　they　were

capable　of　making　no　contemptible　resistance。　The　lords　despised

the　burghers；　whom　they　considered　not　only　as　of　a　different

order；　but　as　a　parcel　of　emancipated　slaves；　almost　of　a

different　species　from　themselves。　The　wealth　of　the　burghers

never　failed　to　provoke　their　envy　and　indignation；　and　they

plundered　them　upon　every　occasion　without　mercy　or　remorse。　The

burghers　naturally　hated　and　feared　the　lords。　The　king　hated　and

feared　them　too；　but　though　perhaps　he　might　despise；　he　had　no

reason　either　to　hate　or　fear　the　burghers。　Mutual　interest；

therefore；　disposed　them　to　support　the　king；　and　the　king　to

support　them　against　the　lords。　They　were　the　enemies　of　his

enemies；　and　it　was　his　interest　to　render　them　as　secure　and

independent　of　those　enemies　as　he　could。　By　granting　them

magistrates　of　their　own；　the　privilege　of　making　bye…laws　for

their　own　government；　that　of　building　walls　for　their　own

defence；　and　that　of　reducing　all　their　inhabitants　under　a　sort

of　military　discipline；　he　gave　them　all　the　means　of　security

and　independency　of　the　barons　which　it　was　in　his　power　to

bestow。　Without　the　establishment　of　some　regular　government　of

this　kind；　without　some　authority　to　compel　their　inhabitants　to

act　according　to　some　certain　plan　or　system；　no　voluntary　league

of　mutual　defence　could　either　have　afforded　them　any　permanent

security；　or　have　enabled　them　to　give　the　king　any　considerable

support。　By　granting　them　the　farm　of　their　town　in　fee；　he　took

away　from　those　whom　he　wished　to　have　for　his　friends；　and；　if

one　may　say　so；　for　his　allies；　all　ground　of　jealousy　and

suspicion　that　he　was　ever　afterwards　to　oppress　them；　either　by

raising　the　farm　rent　of　their　town　or　by　granting　it　to　some

other　farmer。

　　　　　The　princes　who　lived　upon　the　worst　terms　with　their　barons

seem　accordingly　to　have　been　the　most　liberal　in　grants　of　this

kind　to　their　burghs。　King　John　of　England；　for　example；　appears

to　have　been　a　most　munificent　benefactor　to　his　towns。　Philip

the　First　of　France　lost　all　authority　over　his　barons。　Towards

the　end　of　his　reign；　his　son　Lewis；　known　afterwards　by　the　name

of　Lewis　the　Fat；　consulted；　according　to　Father　Daniel；　with　the

bishops　of　the　royal　demesnes　concerning　the　most　proper　means　of

restraining　the　violence　of　the　great　lords。　Their　advice

consisted　of　two　different　proposals。　One　was　to　erect　a　new

order　of　jurisdiction；　by　establishing　magistrates　and　a　town

council　in　every　considerable　town　of　his　demesnes。　The　other　was

to　form　a　new　militia；　by　making　the　inhabitants　of　those　towns；

under　the　command　of　their　own　magistrates；　march　out　upon　proper

occasions　to　the　assistance　of　the　king。　It　is　from　this　period；

according　to　the　French　antiquarians；　that　we　are　to　date　the

institution　of　the　magistrates　and　councils　of　cities　in　France。

It　was　during　the　unprosperous　reigns　of　the　princes　of　the　house

of　Suabia　that　the　greater　part　of　the　free　towns　of　Germany

received　the　first　grants　of　their　privileges；　and　that　the

famous　Hanseatic　league　first　became　formidable。

　　　　　The　militia　of　the　cities　seems；　in　those　times；　not　to　have

been　inferior　to　that　of　the　country；　and　as　they　could　be　more

readily　assembled　upon　any　sudden　occasion；　they　frequently　had

the　advantage　in　their　disputes　with　the　neighbouring　lords。　In

countries；　such　as　Italy　and　Switzerland；　in　which；　on　account

either　of　their　distance　from　the　principal　seat　of　government；

of　the　natural　strength　of　the　country　itself；　or　of　some　other

reason；　the　sovereign　came　to　lose　the　whole　of　his　authority；

the　cities　generally　became　independent　republics；　and　conquered

all　the　nobility　in　their　neighbourhood；　obliging　them　to　pull

down　their　castles　in　the　country　and　to　live；　like　other

peaceable　inhabitants；　in　the　city。　This　is　the　short　history　of

the　republic　of　Berne　as　well　as　of　several　other　cities　in

Switzerland。　If　you　except　Venice；　for　of　that　city　the　history

is　somewhat　different；　it　is　the　history　of　all　the　considerable

Italian　republics；　of　which　so　great　a　number　arose　and　perished

between　the　end　of　the　twelfth　and　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth

century。

　　　　　In　countries　such　as　France　or　England；　where　the　authority

of　the　sovereign；　though　frequently　very　low；　never　was　destroyed

altogether；　the　cities　had　no　opportunity　of　becoming　entirely

independent。　They　became；　however；　so　considerable　that　the

sovereign　could　impose　no　tax　upon　them；　besides　the　stated

farm…rent　of　the　town；　without　their　own　consent。　They　were；

therefore；　called　upon　to　send　deputies　to　the　general　assembly

of　the　states　of　the　kingdom；　where　they　might　join　with　the

clergy　and　the　barons　in　granting；　upon　urgent　occasions；　some

extraordinary　aid　to　the　king。　Being　generally；　too；　more

favourable　to　his　power；　their　deputies　seem；　sometimes；　to　have

been　employed　by　him　as　a　counterbalance　in　those　assemblies　to

the　authority　of　the　great　lords。　Hence　the　origin　of　the

representation　of　burghs　in　the　states…general　of　all　the　great

monarchies　in　Europe。

　　　　　Order　and　good　government；　and　along　with　them　the　liberty

and　security　of　individuals；　were；　in　this　manner；　established　in

cities　at　a　time　when　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country　were

exposed　to　every　sort　of　violence。　But　men　in　this　defenceless

state　naturally　content　themselves　with　their　necessary

subsistence；　because　to　acquire　more　might　only　tempt　the

injustice　of　their　oppressors。　On　the　contrary；　when　they　are

secure　of　enjoying　the　fruits　of　their　industry；　they　naturally

exert　it　to　better　their　condition；　and　to　acquire　not　only　the

necessaries；　but　the　conveniences　and　elegancies　of　life。　That

industry；　therefore；　which　aims　at　something　more　than　necessary

subsistence；　was　established　in　cities　long　before　it　was

commonly　practised　by　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country。　If　in

the　hands　of　a　poor　cultivator；　oppressed　with　the　servitude　of

villanage；　some　little　stock　should　accumulate；　he　would

naturally　conceal　it　with　great　care　from　his　master；　to　whom　it

would　otherwise　have　belonged；　and　take　the　first　opportunity　of

running　away　to　a　town。　The　law　was　at　that　time　so　indulgent　to

the　inhabitants　of　towns；　and　so　desirous　of　diminishing　the

authority　of　the　lords　over　those　of　the　country；　that　if　he

could　conceal　himself　there　from　the　pursuit　of　his　lord　for　a

year；　he　was　free　for　ever。　Whatever　stock；　therefore；

accumulated　in　the　hands　of　the　industrious　part　of　the

inhabitants　of　the　country　naturally　took　refuge　in　cities　as　the

only　sanctuaries　in　which　it　could　be　secure　to　the　person　that

acquired　it。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　a　city；　it　is　true；　must　always

ultimately　derive　their　subsistence；　and　the　whole　materials　and

means　of　their　industry；　from　the　country。　But　those　of　a　city；

situated　near　either　the　sea　coast　or　the　banks　of　a　navigable

river；　are　not　necessarily　confined　to　derive　them　from　the

country　in　their　neighbourhood。　They　have　a　much　wider　range；　and

may　draw　them　from　the　most　remote　corners　of　the　world；　either

in　exchange　for　the　manufactured　produce　of　their　own　industry；

or　by　performing　the　office　of　carriers　between　distant