wealbk03-第2章

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carrying　on　his　own　business　in　supplying　the　neighbouring

country；　he　does　not；　in　North　America；　attempt　to　establish　with

it　a　manufacture　for　more　distant　sale；　but　employs　it　in　the

purchase　and　improvement　of　uncultivated　land。　From　artificer　he

becomes　planter；　and　neither　the　large　wages　nor　the　easy

subsistence　which　that　country　affords　to　artificers　can　bribe

him　rather　to　work　for　other　people　than　for　himself。　He　feels

that　an　artificer　is　the　servant　of　his　customers；　from　whom　he

derives　his　subsistence；　but　that　a　planter　who　cultivates　his

own　land；　and　derives　his　necessary　subsistence　from　the　labour

of　his　own　family；　is　really　a　master；　and　independent　of　all　the

world。

　　　　　In　countries；　on　the　contrary；　where　there　is　either　no

uncultivated　land；　or　none　that　can　be　had　upon　easy　terms；　every

artificer　who　has　acquired　more　stock　than　he　can　employ　in　the

occasional　jobs　of　the　neighbourhood　endeavours　to　prepare　work

for　more　distant　sale。　The　smith　erects　some　sort　of　iron；　the

weaver　some　sort　of　linen　or　woollen　manufactory。　Those　different

manufactures　come；　in　process　of　time；　to　be　gradually

subdivided；　and　thereby　improved　and　refined　in　a　great　variety

of　ways；　which　may　easily　be　conceived；　and　which　it　is　therefore

unnecessary　to　explain　any　further。

　　　　　In　seeking　for　employment　to　a　capital；　manufactures　are；

upon　equal　or　nearly　equal　profits；　naturally　preferred　to

foreign　commerce；　for　the　same　reason　that　agriculture　is

naturally　preferred　to　manufactures。　As　the　capital　of　the

landlord　or　farmer　is　more　secure　than　that　of　the　manufacturer；

so　the　capital　of　the　manufacturer；　being　at　all　times　more

within　his　view　and　command；　is　more　secure　than　that　of　the

foreign　merchant。　In　every　period；　indeed；　of　every　society；　the

surplus　part　both　of　the　rude　and　manufactured　produce；　or　that

for　which　there　is　no　demand　at　home；　must　be　sent　abroad　in

order　to　be　exchanged　for　something　for　which　there　is　some

demand　at　home。　But　whether　the　capital；　which　carries　this

surplus　produce　abroad；　be　a　foreign　or　a　domestic　one　is　of　very

little　importance。　If　the　society　has　not　acquired　sufficient

capital　both　to　cultivate　all　its　lands；　and　to　manufacture　in

the　completest　manner　the　whole　of　its　rude　produce；　there　is

even　a　considerable　advantage　that　rude　produce　should　be

exported　by　a　foreign　capital；　in　order　that　the　whole　stock　of

the　society　may　be　employed　in　more　useful　purposes。　The　wealth

of　ancient　Egypt；　that　of　China　and　Indostan；　sufficiently

demonstrate　that　a　nation　may　attain　a　very　high　degree　of

opulence　though　the　greater　part　of　its　exportation　trade　be

carried　on　by　foreigners。　The　progress　of　our　North　American　and

West　Indian　colonies　would　have　been　much　less　rapid　had　no

capital　but　what　belonged　to　themselves　been　employed　in

exporting　their　surplus　produce。

　　　　　According　to　the　natural　course　of　things；　therefore；　the

greater　part　of　the　capital　of　every　growing　society　is；　first；

directed　to　agriculture；　afterwards　to　manufactures；　and　last　of

all　to　foreign　commerce。　This　order　of　things　is　so　very　natural

that　in　every　society　that　had　any　territory　it　has　always；　I

believe；　been　in　some　degree　observed。　Some　of　their　lands　must

have　been　cultivated　before　any　considerable　towns　could　be

established；　and　some　sort　of　coarse　industry　of　the

manufacturing　kind　must　have　been　carried　on　in　those　towns；

before　they　could　well　think　of　employing　themselves　in　foreign

commerce。

　　　　　But　though　this　natural　order　of　things　must　have　taken

place　in　some　degree　in　every　such　society；　it　has；　in　all　the

modern　states　of　Europe；　been；　in　many　respects；　entirely

inverted。　The　foreign　commerce　of　some　of　their　cities　has

introduced　all　their　finer　manufactures；　or　such　as　were　fit　for

distant　sale；　and　manufactures　and　foreign　commerce　together　have

given　birth　to　the　principal　improvements　of　agriculture。　The

manners　and　customs　which　the　nature　of　their　original　government

introduced；　and　which　remained　after　that　government　was　greatly

altered；　necessarily　forced　them　into　this　unnatural　and

retrograde　order。　　　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　II



Of　the　Discouragement　of　Agriculture　in　the　ancient　State　of

Europe　after　the　Fall　of　the　Roman　Empire　



　　　　　WHEN　the　German　and　Scythian　nations　overran　the　western

provinces　of　the　Roman　empire；　the　confusions　which　followed　so

great　a　revolution　lasted　for　several　centuries。　The　rapine　and

violence　which　the　barbarians　exercised　against　the　ancient

inhabitants　interrupted　the　commerce　between　the　towns　and　the

country。　The　towns　were　deserted；　and　the　country　was　left

uncultivated；　and　the　western　provinces　of　Europe；　which　had

enjoyed　a　considerable　degree　of　opulence　under　the　Roman　empire；

sunk　into　the　lowest　state　of　poverty　and　barbarism。　During　the

continuance　of　those　confusions；　the　chiefs　and　principal　leaders

of　those　nations　acquired　or　usurped　to　themselves　the　greater

part　of　the　lands　of　those　countries。　A　great　part　of　them　was

uncultivated；　but　no　part　of　them；　whether　cultivated　or

uncultivated；　was　left　without　a　proprietor。　All　of　them　were

engrossed；　and　the　greater　part　by　a　few　great　proprietors。

　　　　　This　original　engrossing　of　uncultivated　lands；　though　a

great；　might　have　been　but　a　transitory　evil。　They　might　soon

have　been　divided　again；　and　broke　into　small　parcels　either　by

succession　or　by　alienation。　The　law　of　primogeniture　hindered

them　from　being　divided　by　succession：　the　introduction　of

entails　prevented　their　being　broke　into　small　parcels　by

alienation。

　　　　　When　land；　like　movables；　is　considered　as　the　means　only　of

subsistence　and　enjoyment；　the　natural　law　of　succession　divides

it；　like　them；　among　all　the　children　of　the　family；　of　an　of

whom　the　subsistence　and　enjoyment　may　be　supposed　equally　dear

to　the　father。　This　natural　law　of　succession　accordingly　took

place　among　the　Romans；　who　made　no　more　distinction　between

elder　and　younger；　between　male　and　female；　in　the　inheritance　of

lands　than　we　do　in　the　distribution　of　movables。　But　when　land

was　considered　as　the　means；　not　of　subsistence　merely；　but　of

power　and　protection；　it　was　thought　better　that　it　should

descend　undivided　to　one。　In　those　disorderly　times　every　great

landlord　was　a　sort　of　petty　prince。　His　tenants　were　his

subjects。　He　was　their　judge；　and　in　some　respects　their

legislator　in　peace；　and　their　leader　in　war。　He　made　war

according　to　his　own　discretion；　frequently　against　his

neighbours；　and　sometimes　against　his　sovereign。　The　security　of

a　landed　estate；　therefore；　the　protection　which　its　owner　could

afford　to　those　who　dwelt　on　it；　depended　upon　its　greatness。　To

divide　it　was　to　ruin　it；　and　to　expose　every　part　of　it　to　be

oppressed　and　swallowed　up　by　the　incursions　of　its　neighbours。

The　law　of　primogeniture；　therefore；　came　to　take　place；　not

immediately；　indeed；　but　in　process　of　time；　in　the　succession　of

landed　estates；　for　the　same　reason　that　it　has　generally　taken

place　in　that　of　monarchies；　though　not　always　at　their　first

institution。　That　the　power；　and　consequently　the　security　of　the

monarchy；　may　not　be　weakened　by　division；　it　must　descend　entire

to　one　of　the　children。　To　which　of　them　so　important　a

preference　shall　be　given　must　be　determined　by　some　general

rule；　founded　not　upon　the　doubtful　distinctions　of　personal

merit；　but　upon　some　plain　and　evident　difference　which　can　admit

of　no　dispute。　Among　the　children　of　the　same　family；　there　can

be　no　indisputable　difference　but　that　of　sex；　and　that　of　age。

The　male　sex　is　universally　preferred　to　the　female；　and　when　all

other　things　are　equal；　the　elder　everywhere　takes　place　of　the

younger。　Hence　the　origin　of　the　right　of　primogeniture；　and　of

what　is　called　lineal　succession。

　　　　　Laws　frequently　continue　in　force　long　after　the

circumstances　which　first　gave　occasion　to　them；　and　which　could

alone　render　them　reasonable；　are　no　more。　In　the　present　sta