the man versus the state-第33章

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sserting　the　sacredness　of　property　against　private　transgressors；　we　do　not　ask　whether　the　benefit　to　a　hungry　man　who　takes　bread　from　a　baker's　shop；　is　or　is　not　greater　than　the　injury　inflicted　on　the　baker：　we　consider；　not　the　special　effects；　but　the　general　effects　which　arise　if　property　is　insecure。　But　when　the　State　exacts　further　amounts　from　citizens；　or　further　restrains　their　liberties；　we　consider　only　the　direct　and　proximate　effects；　and　ignore　the　indirect　and　distant　effects　which　are　caused　when　these　invasions　of　individual　rights　are　continually　multiplied。　We　do　not　see　that　by　accumulated　small　infractions　of　them；　the　vital　conditions　of　life；　individual　and　social；　come　to　be　so　imperfectly　fulfilled　that　the　life　decays。　　　　　　Yet　the　decay　thus　caused　becomes　manifest　where　the　policy　is　pushed　to　an　extreme。　Any　one　who　studies；　in　the　writings　of　MM。　Taine　and　de　Tocqueville；　the　state　of　things　which　preceded　the　French　Revolution；　will　see　that　the　tremendous　catastrophe　came　about　from　so　excessive　a　regulation　of　men's　actions　in　all　their　details；　and　such　an　enormous　drafting　away　of　the　products　of　their　actions　to　maintain　the　regulating　organization；　that　life　was　fast　becoming　impracticable。　The　empirical　utilitarianism　of　that　day；　like　the　empirical　utilitarianism　of　our　day；　differed　from　rational　utilitarianism　in　this；　that　in　each　successive　case　it　contemplated　only　the　effects　of　particular　interferences　on　the　actions　of　particular　classes　of　men；　and　ignored　the　effects　produced　by　a　multiplicity　of　such　interferences　on　the　lives　of　men　at　large。　And　if　we　ask　what　then　made；　and　what　now　makes；　this　error　possible；　we　find　it　to　be　the　political　superstition　that　governmental　power　is　subject　to　no　restraints。　　　　　　When　that　〃divinity〃　which　〃doth　hedge　a　king；〃　and　which　has　left　a　glamour　around　the　body　inheriting　his　power；　has　quite　died　away　　when　it　begins　to　be　seen　clearly　that；　in　a　popularly…governed　nation；　the　government　is　simply　a　committee　of　management；　it　will　also　be　seen　that　this　committee　of　management　has　no　intrinsic　authority。　The　inevitable　conclusion　will　be　that　its　authority　is　given　by　those　appointing　it；　and　has　just　such　bounds　as　they　choose　to　impose。　Along　with　this　will　go　the　further　conclusion　that　the　laws　it　passes　are　not　in　themselves　sacred；　but　that　whatever　sacredness　they　have；　it　is　entirely　due　to　the　ethical　sanction　　an　ethical　sanction　which；　as　we　find；　is　derivable　from　the　laws　of　human　life　as　carried　on　under　social　conditions。　And　there　will　come　the　corollary　that　when　they　have　not　this　ethical　sanction　they　have　no　sacredness；　and　may　rightly　be　challenged。　　　　　　The　function　of　Liberalism　in　the　past　was　that　of　putting　a　limit　to　the　powers　of　kings。　The　function　of　true　Liberalism　in　the　future　will　be　that　of　putting　a　limit　to　the　powers　of　Parliaments。　

NOTES：

1。　Hobbes；　Collected　Works；　Vol。　iii；　pp。　112…3。

2。　Ibid。；　p。　159。

3。　Ibid。；　p。　130…1。

4。　The　Province　of　Jurisprudence　Determined　（second　edition）；　p。　241。

5。　Fortnightly　Review　in　1880；　vol。　xxvii；　p。　322。

6。　Bentham's　Works；　vol。　1；　p。　301。

7。　Prescott；　Conquest　of　Peru；　bk。　i。；　ch。　i。

8。　Harris；　Highland　of　Aethiopia；　ii。　94。

9。　Burton；　Mission　to　Gelele；　King　of　Dahome；　i。　p。　226。

10。　Bentham's　Works；　vol。　ix；　p。　97。

11。　Burchell；　W。J。；　Travels　in　the　Interior　of　Southern　Africa；　vol。　i；　p。　544。

12。　Arbousset　and　Daumas；　Voyage　of　Exploration；　p。　27。

13。　Thompson；　G。；　Travels　and　Adventures　in　Southern　Africa；　vol。　ii；　p。　30。

14。　Thompson；　G。A。；　Alcedo's　Geographical　and　Historical　Dictionary　of　America；　vol。　i；　p。　405。

15。　Mitchell；　Alex。；　Siberian　Overland　Route；　p。　248。

16。　Brooke；　C。；　Ten　Years　in　Sardwak；　vol。　i；　p。　129。

17。　Ellis；　History　of　Madagascar；　vol。　i；　377。

18。　Raffles；　Sir　T。S。；　History　of　Java；　vol。　i；　274。

19。　Marsden；　W。；　History　of　Sumatra；　p。　217。

20。　Beecham；　J。；　Ashante　and　the　Gold　Coast；　p。　90。

21。　Schoolcraft；　H。R。；　Expedition　to　the　Sources　of　the　Mississippi　River；　v。；　177。

22。　Earl's　Kolff's　Voyage　of　the　Domga；　p。　161。

23。　〃The　Methods　of　Jurisprudence：　an　Introductory　Lecture　at　University　College；　London；〃　October　31；　1882。

24。　Tennant；　Ceylon：　an　Account　of　the　Island；　etc。；　ii；　440。

25。　Bonwick；　J。；　Daily　Life　and　the　Origin　of　the　Tasmanians；　83。

26。　Polynesia；　p。　86。

27。　Voyages　of　the　Adventure　and　Beagle；　3　vols。

28。　Wallace；　A。R。；　Travels　on　Amazon　and　Rio　Negro；　p。　499。

29。　Schoolcraft；　Expedition　to　the　Source　of　the　Mississippi；　v。；　177。

30。　B。F。　Hartshorne；　Fortnightly　Review；　March；　1876。　See　also　H。C。　Sirr；　Ceylon　and　the　Ceyonese；　ii。　219。

31。　Address　of　C。B。　Vignoles；　Esq。；　F。R。S。；　on　his　Election　as　President　of　the　Institution　of　Civil　Engineers；　Session；　1869…70；　p。　53。

32。　Data　of　Ethics；　section　21。　See　also　sections　56…62。

POSTSCRIPT

　　　　〃Do　I　expect　this　doctrine　to　meet　with　any　considerable　acceptance？〃　I　wish　I　could　say；　yes；　but　unhappily　various　reasons　oblige　me　to　conclude　that　only　here　and　there　a　solitary　citizen　may　have　his　political　creed　modified。　Of　these　reasons　there　is　one　from　which　all　the　others　originate。　　　　　　This　essential　reason　is　that　the　restriction　of　governmental　power　within　the　limits　assigned；　is　appropriate　to　the　industrial　type　of　society　only；　and；　while　wholly　incongruous　with　the　militant　type　of　society；　is　partially　incongruous　with　that　semi…militant　semi…industrial　type；　which　now　characterizes　advanced　nations。　At　every　stage　of　social　evolution　there　must　exist　substantial　agreement　between　practices　and　beliefs　　real　beliefs　I　mean；　not　nominal　ones。　Life　can　be　carried　on　only　by　the　harmonizing　of　thoughts　and　acts。　Either　the　conduct　required　by　circumstances　must　modify　the　beliefs　to　fit　it；　or　else　the　changed　beliefs　must　eventually　modify　the　conduct。　　　　　　Hence　if　the　maintenance　of　social　life　under　one　set　of　conditions；　necessitates　extreme　subordination　to　a　ruler　and　entire　faith　in　him；　there　will　be　established　a　theory　that　the　subordination　and　the　faith　are　proper　　nay　imperative。　Conversely　if；　under　other　conditions；　great　subjection　of　citizens　to　government　is　no　longer　needful　for　preservation　of　the　national　life　　if；　contrariwise；　the　national　life　becomes　larger　in　amount　and　higher　in　quality　as　fast　as　citizens　gain　increased　freedom　of　action；　there　comes　a　progressive　modification　of　their　political　theory；　having　the　result　of　diminishing　their　faith　in　governmental　action；　increasing　their　tendency　to　question　governmental　authority；　and　leading　them　in　more　numerous　cases　to　resist　governmental　power：　involving；　eventually；　an　established　doctrine　of　limitation。　　　　　　Thus　it　is　not　to　be　expected　that　current　opinion　respecting　governmental　authority；　can　at　present　be　modified　to　any　great　extent。　But　let　us　look　at　the　necessities　of　the　case　more　closely。

Manifestly　the　success　of　an　army　depends　very　much　on　the　faith　of　the　soldiers　in　their　general：　disbelief　in　his　ability　will　go　far　towards　paralysing　them　in　battle；　while　absolute　confidence　in　him　will　make　them　fulfil　their　respective　parts　with　courage　and　energy。　If；　as　in　the　normally…developed　militant　type　of　society；　the　ruler　in　peace　and　the　leader　in　war　are　one　and　the　same；　this　confidence　in　him　extends　from　military　action　to　civil　action；　and　the　society；　in　large　measure　identical　with　the　army；　willingly　accepts　his　judgments　as　law…giver。　Even　where　the　civil　head；　ceasing　to　be　the　military　head；　does　his　generalship　by　deputy；　there　still　clings　to　him　the　traditional　faith。　　　　　　Similarly　with　the　willingness　to　obey。　Other　things　equal　an　army　of　insubordinate　soldiers　fails　before　an　army　of　subordinate　soldiers。　Those　whose　obedience　to　their　leader　is　perfect　and　prompt；　are　obviously　more　likely　to　succeed　in　battle　than　are　those　who　disregard　the　commands　issued　to　them。　And　as　with　the　army　so　with　the　society　as　a　whole；　success　in　war　must　largely　depend　on　that　conformity　to　the　ruler's　will　which　brings　men　and　money　when　wanted；　and　adjusts　all　conduct　to　his　needs。　　　　　　Thus　by　survival　of　the　fittest；　the　militant　type