the man versus the state-第1章

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The　Man　versus　the　State

　　　　　　　　by　Herbert　Spencer

1884



Preface

　　　　The　Westminster　Review　for　April　1860；　contained　an　article　entitled　〃Parliamentary　Reform：　the　Dangers　and　the　Safeguards。〃　In　that　article　I　ventured　to　predict　some　results　of　political　changes　then　proposed。　　　　　　Reduced　to　its　simplest　expression；　the　thesis　maintained　was　that；　unless　due　precautions　were　taken；　increase　of　freedom　in　form　would　be　followed　by　decrease　of　freedom　in　fact。　Nothing　has　occurred　to　alter　the　belief　I　then　expressed。　The　drift　of　legislation　since　that　time　has　been　of　the　kind　anticipated。　Dictatorial　measures；　rapidly　multiplied；　have　tended　continually　to　narrow　the　liberties　of　individuals；　and　have　done　this　in　a　double　way。　Regulations　have　been　made　in　yearly…growing　numbers；　restraining　the　citizen　in　directions　where　his　actions　were　previously　unchecked；　and　compelling　actions　which　previously　he　might　perform　or　not　as　he　liked；　and　at　the　same　time　heavier　public　burdens；　chiefly　local；　have　further　restricted　his　freedom；　by　lessening　that　portion　of　his　earnings　which　he　can　spend　as　he　pleases；　and　augmenting　the　portion　taken　from　him　to　be　spent　as　public　agents　please。　　　　　　The　causes　of　these　foretold　effects；　then　in　operation；　continue　in　operation　　are；　indeed；　likely　to　be　strengthened；　and　finding　that　the　conclusions　drawn　respecting　these　causes　and　effects　have　proved　true；　I　have　been　prompted　to　set　forth　and　emphasize　kindred　conclusions　respecting　the　future；　and　do　what　little　may　be　done　towards　awakening　attention　to　threatened　evils。　　　　　　For　this　purpose　were　written　the　four　following　articles；　originally　published　in　the　Contemporary　Review　for　February；　April；　May；　June　and　July　of　this　year。　To　meet　certain　criticisms　and　to　remove　some　of　the　objections　likely　to　be　raised；　I　have　now　added　a　postscript。　

Bayswater；　July；　1884

THE　NEW　TORYISM

　　　　Most　of　those　who　now　pass　as　Liberals；　are　Tories　of　a　new　type。　This　is　a　paradox　which　I　propose　to　justify。　That　I　may　justify　it；　I　must　first　point　out　what　the　two　political　parties　originally　were；　and　I　must　then　ask　the　reader　to　bear　with　me　while　I　remind　him　of　facts　he　is　familiar　with；　that　I　may　impress　on　him　the　intrinsic　natures　of　Toryism　and　Liberalism　properly　so　called。　　　　　　Dating　back　to　an　earlier　period　than　their　names；　the　two　political　parties　at　first　stood　respectively　for　two　opposed　types　of　social　organization；　broadly　distinguishable　as　the　militant　and　the　industrial　　types　which　are　characterized；　the　one　by　the　regime　of　status；　almost　universal　in　ancient　days；　and　the　other　by　the　regime　of　contract；　which　has　become　general　in　modern　days；　chiefly　among　the　Western　nations；　and　especially　among　ourselves　and　the　Americans。　If；　instead　of　using　the　word　〃co…operation〃　in　a　limited　sense；　we　use　it　in　its　widest　sense；　as　signifying　the　combined　activities　of　citizens　under　whatever　system　of　regulation；　then　these　two　are　definable　as　the　system　of　compulsory　co…operation　and　the　system　of　voluntary　co…operation。　The　typical　structure　of　the　one　we　see　in　an　army　formed　of　conscripts；　in　which　the　units　in　their　several　grades　have　to　fulfil　commands　under　pain　of　death；　and　receive　food　and　clothing　and　pay；　arbitrarily　apportioned；　while　the　typical　structure　of　the　other　we　see　in　a　body　of　producers　or　distributors；　who　severally　agree　to　specified　payments　in　return　for　specified　services；　and　may　at　will；　after　due　notice；　leave　the　organization　if　they　do　not　like　it。　　　　　　During　social　evolution　in　England；　the　distinction　between　these　two　fundamentally…opposed　forms　of　co…operation；　made　its　appearance　gradually；　but　long　before　the　names　Tory　and　Whig　came　into　use；　the　parties　were　becoming　traceable；　and　their　connexions　with　militancy　and　industrialism　respectively；　were　vaguely　shown。　The　truth　is　familiar　that；　here　as　elsewhere；　it　was　habitually　by　town…populations；　formed　of　workers　and　traders　accustomed　to　co…operate　under　contract；　that　resistances　were　made　to　that　coercive　rule　which　characterizes　co…operation　under　status。　While；　conversely；　cooperation　under　status；　arising　from；　and　adjusted　to；　chronic　warfare；　was　supported　in　rural　districts；　originally　peopled　by　military　chiefs　and　their　dependents；　where　the　primitive　ideas　and　traditions　survived。　Moreover；　this　contrast　in　political　leanings；　shown　before　Whig　and　Tory　principles　became　clearly　distinguished；　continued　to　be　shown　afterwards。　At　the　period　of　the　Revolution；　〃while　the　villages　and　smaller　towns　were　monopolized　by　Tories；　the　larger　cities；　the　manufacturing　districts；　and　the　ports　of　commerce；　formed　the　strongholds　of　the　Whigs。〃　And　that；　spite　of　exceptions；　the　like　general　relation　still　exists；　needs　no　proving。　　　　　　Such　were　the　natures　of　the　two　parties　as　indicated　by　their　origins。　Observe；　now；　how　their　natures　were　indicated　by　their　early　doctrines　and　deeds。　Whiggism　began　with　resistance　to　Charles　II　and　his　cabal；　in　their　efforts　to　re…establish　unchecked　monarchical　power。　The　Whigs　〃regarded　the　monarchy　as　a　civil　institution；　established　by　the　nation　for　the　benefit　of　all　its　members；〃　while　with　the　Tories　〃the　monarch　was　the　delegate　of　heaven。〃　And　these　doctrines　involved　the　beliefs；　the　one　that　subjection　of　citizen　to　ruler　was　conditional；　and　the　other　that　it　was　unconditional。　Describing　Whig　and　Tory　as　conceived　at　the　end　of　the　seventeenth　century；　some　fifty　years　before　he　wrote　his　Dissertation　on　Parties；　Bolingbroke　says：　

〃The　power　and　majesty　of　the　people；　an　original　contract；　the　authority　and　independency　of　Parliaments；　liberty；　resistance；　exclusion；　abdication；　deposition；　these　were　ideas　associated；　at　that　time；　to　the　idea　of　a　Whig；　and　supposed　by　every　Whig　to　be　incommunicable；　and　inconsistent　with　the　idea　of　a　Tory。　

〃Divine；　hereditary；　indefeasible　right；　lineal　succession；　passive…obedience；　prerogative；　non…resistance；　slavery；　nay；　and　sometimes　popery　too；　were　associated　in　many　minds　to　the　idea　of　a　Tory；　and　deemed　incommunicable　and　inconsistent；　in　the　same　manner；　with　the　idea　of　a　Whig。〃　Dissertation　on　Parties；　p。　5　＇1735；　p。　4＇。　

And　if　we　compare　these　descriptions；　we　see　that　in　the　one　party　there　was　a　desire　to　resist　and　decrease　the　coercive　power　of　the　ruler　over　the　subject；　and　in　the　other　party　to　maintain　or　increase　his　coercive　power。　This　distinction　in　their　aims　　a　distinction　which　transcends　in　meaning　and　importance　all　other　political　distinctions　　was　displayed　in　their　early　doings。　Whig　principles　were　exemplified　in　the　Habeas　Corpus　Act；　and　in　the　measure　by　which　judges　were　made　independent　of　the　Crown；　in　defeat　of　the　Non…Resisting　Test　Bill；　which　proposed　for　legislators　and　officials　a　compulsory　oath　that　they　would　in　no　case　resist　the　king　by　arms；　and；　later；　they　were　exemplified　in　the　Bill　of　rights；　framed　to　secure　subjects　against　monarchical　aggressions。　These　Acts　had　the　same　intrinsic　nature。　The　principle　of　compulsory　co…operation　throughout　social　life　was　weakened　by　them；　and　the　principle　of　voluntary　co…operation　strengthened。　That　at　a　subsequent　period　the　policy　of　the　party　had　the　same　general　tendency；　is　well　shown　by　a　remark　of　Mr　Green　concerning　the　period　of　Whig　power　after　the　death　of　Anne：　

〃Before　the　fifty　years　of　their　rule　had　passed；　Englishmen　had　forgotten　that　it　was　possible　to　persecute　for　differences　of　religion；　or　to　put　down　the　liberty　of　the　press；　or　to　tamper　with　the　administration　of　justice；　or　to　rule　without　a　Parliament。〃　　　　　　　　　Short　History；　p。　705。　　＇J。　R。　Green；　Short　History　of　the　English　People；　London；　1874。　The　（later）　editions　which　I　have　been　able　to　consult　have　'opinion'　in　place　of　'religion'。＇　

　　　　And　now；　passing　over　the　war…period　which　closed　the　last　century　and　began　this；　during　which　that　extension　of　individual　freedom　previously　gained　was　lost；　and　the　retrograde　movement　towards　the　social　type　proper　to　militancy　was　shown　by　all　kinds　of　coercive　measures；　from　those　which　took　by　force　the　persons　and　property　of　citizens　for　war…purposes　to　th