the story of mankind-第57章

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But　it　is　not　only　on　account　of　this　great　liberal　measure

that　the　rule　of　William　in　England　is　still　remembered。　During

his　lifetime；　government　by　a　‘‘responsible''　ministry　first

developed。　No　king　of　course　can　rule　alone。　He　needs　a　few

trusted　advisors。　The　Tudors　had　their　Great　Council　which

was　composed　of　Nobles　and　Clergy。　This　body　grew　too

large。　It　was　restricted　to　the　small　‘‘Privy　Council。''　In　the

course　of　time　it　became　the　custom　of　these　councillors　to　meet

the　king　in　a　cabinet　in　the　palace。　Hence　they　were　called

the　‘‘Cabinet　Council。''　After　a　short　while　they　were　known

as　the　‘‘Cabinet。''



William；　like　most　English　sovereigns　before　him；　had

chosen　his　advisors　from　among　all　parties。　But　with　the　increased

strength　of　Parliament；　he　had　found　it　impossible　to

direct　the　politics　of　the　country　with　the　help　of　the　Tories

while　the　Whigs　had　a　majority　in　the　house　of　Commons。

Therefore　the　Tories　had　been　dismissed　and　the　Cabinet　Council

had　been　composed　entirely　of　Whigs。　A　few　years　later

when　the　Whigs　lost　their　power　in　the　House　of　Commons；　the

king；　for　the　sake　of　convenience；　was　obliged　to　look　for　his

support　among　the　leading　Tories。　Until　his　death　in　1702；

William　was　too　busy　fighting　Louis　of　France　to　bother　much

about　the　government　of　England。　Practically　all　important

affairs　had　been　left　to　his　Cabinet　Council。　When　William's

sister…in…law；　Anne；　succeeded　him　in　1702　this　condition　of

affairs　continued。　When　she　died　in　1714　（and　unfortunately

not　a　single　one　of　her　seventeen　children　survived　her）　the

throne　went　to　George　I　of　the　House　of　Hanover；　the　son　of

Sophie；　grand…daughter　of　James　I。



This　somewhat　rustic　monarch；　who　never　learned　a　word

of　English；　was　entirely　lost　in　the　complicated　mazes　of　England's

political　arrangements。　He　left　everything　to　his　Cabinet

Council　and　kept　away　from　their　meetings；　which　bored

him　as　he　did　not　understand　a　single　sentence。　In　this　way

the　Cabinet　got　into　the　habit　of　ruling　England　and　Scotland

（whose　Parliament　had　been　joined　to　that　of　England

in　1707）　without　bothering　the　King；　who　was　apt　to　spend

a　great　deal　of　his　time　on　the　continent。



During　the　reign　of　George　I　and　George　II；　a　succession　of

great　Whigs　（of　whom　one；　Sir　Robert　Walpole；　held　office　for

twenty…one　years）　formed　the　Cabinet　Council　of　the　King。

Their　leader　was　finally　recognised　as　the　official　leader　not

only　of　the　actual　Cabinet　but　also　of　the　majority　party　in

power　in　Parliament。　The　attempts　of　George　III　to　take

matters　into　his　own　hands　and　not　to　leave　the　actual　business

of　government　to　his　Cabinet　were　so　disastrous　that

they　were　never　repeated。　And　from　the　earliest　years　of　the

eighteenth　century　on；　England　enjoyed　representative　government；

with　a　responsible　ministry　which　conducted　the　affairs

of　the　land。



To　be　quite　true；　this　government　did　not　represent　all

classes　of　society。　Less　than　one　man　in　a　dozen　had　the　right

to　vote。　But　it　was　the　foundation　for　the　modern　representative

form　of　government。　In　a　quiet　and　orderly　fashion　it

took　the　power　away　from　the　King　and　placed　it　in　the　hands

of　an　ever　increasing　number　of　popular　representatives。　It　did

not　bring　the　millenium　to　England；　but　it　saved　that　country

from　most　of　the　revolutionary　outbreaks　which　proved　so

disastrous　to　the　European　continent　in　the　eighteenth　and

nineteenth　centuries。







THE　BALANCE　OF　POWER



IN　FRANCE　ON　THE　OTHER　HAND　THE　‘‘DIVINE

RIGHT　OF　KINGS''　CONTINUED　WITH

GREATER　POMP　AND　SPLENDOUR　THAN

EVER　BEFORE　AND　THE　AMBITION　OF

THE　RULER　WAS　ONLY　TEMPERED　BY

THE　NEWLY　INVENTED　LAW　OF　THE

‘‘BALANCE　OF　POWER''





As　a　contrast　to　the　previous　chapter；　let　me　tell　you　what

happened　in　France　during　the　years　when　the　English　people

were　fighting　for　their　liberty。　The　happy　combination

of　the　right　man　in　the　right　country　at　the　right　moment　is　very

rare　in　History。　Louis　XIV　was　a　realisation　of　this　ideal；　as

far　as　France　was　concerned；　but　the　rest　of　Europe　would

have　been　happier　without　him。



The　country　over　which　the　young　king　was　called　to　rule

was　the　most　populous　and　the　most　brilliant　nation　of　that

day。　Louis　came　to　the　throne　when　Mazarin　and　Richelieu；

the　two　great　Cardinals；　had　just　hammered　the　ancient　French

Kingdom　into　the　most　strongly　centralised　state　of　the　seventeenth

century。　He　was　himself　a　man　of　extraordinary　ability。

We；　the　people　of　the　twentieth　century；　are　still

surrounded　by　the　memories　of　the　glorious　age　of　the　Sun　King。

Our　social　life　is　based　upon　the　perfection　of　manners　and　the

elegance　of　expression　attained　at　the　court　of　Louis。　In

international　and　diplomatic　relations；　French　is　still　the　official

language　of　diplomacy　and　international　gatherings　because

two　centuries　ago　it　reached　a　polished　elegance　and　a　purity

of　expression　which　no　other　tongue　had　as　yet　been　able　to

equal。　The　theatre　of　King　Louis　still　teaches　us　lessons

which　we　are　only　too　slow　in　learning。　During　his　reign　the

French　Academy　（an　invention　of　Richelieu）　came　to　occupy

a　position　in　the　world　of　letters　which　other　countries　have

flattered　by　their　imitation。　We　might　continue　this　list　for

many　pages。　It　is　no　matter　of　mere　chance　that　our　modern

bill…of…fare　is　printed　in　French。　The　very　difficult　art　of

decent　cooking；　one　of　the　highest　expressions　of　civilisation；

was　first　practiced　for　the　benefit　of　the　great　Monarch。　The

age　of　Louis　XIV　was　a　time　of　splendour　and　grace　which　can

still　teach　us　a　lot。



Unfortunately　this　brilliant　picture　has　another　side　which

was　far　less　encouraging。　Glory　abroad　too　often　means

misery　at　home；　and　France　was　no　exception　to　this　rule

Louis　XIV　succeeded　his　father　in　the　year　1643。　He　died　in

the　year　1715。　That　means　that　the　government　of　France

was　in　the　hands　of　one　single　man　for　seventy…two　years；

almost　two　whole　generations。



It　will　be　well　to　get　a　firm　grasp　of　this　idea；　‘‘one　single

man。''　Louis　was　the　first　of　a　long　list　of　monarchs　who　in

many　countries　established　that　particular　form　of　highly　efficient

autocracy　which　we　call　‘‘enlightened　despotism。''　He

did　not　like　kings　who　merely　played　at　being　rulers　and

turned　official　affairs　into　a　pleasant　picnic。　The　Kings　of

that　enlightened　age　worked　harder　than　any　of　their　subjects。

They　got　up　earlier　and　went　to　bed　later　than　anybody　else；

and　felt　their　‘‘divine　responsibility''　quite　as　strongly　as　their

‘‘divine　right''　which　allowed　them　to　rule　without　consulting

their　subjects。



Of　course；　the　king　could　not　attend　to　everything　in　person。

He　was　obliged　to　surround　himself　with　a　few　helpers

and　councillors。　One　or　two　generals；　some　experts　upon　foreign

politics；　a　few　clever　financiers　and　economists　would　do

for　this　purpose。　But　these　dignitaries　could　act　only　through

their　Sovereign。　They　had　no　individual　existence。　To　the

mass　of　the　people；　the　Sovereign　actually　represented　in　his

own　sacred　person　the　government　of　their　country。　The

glory　of　the　common　fatherland　became　the　glory　of　a　single

dynasty。　It　meant　the　exact　opposite　of　our　own　American

ideal。　France　was　ruled　of　and　by　and　for　the　House　of　Bourbon。



The　disadvantages　of　such　a　system　are　clear。　The　King

grew　to　be　everything。　Everybody　else　grew　to　be　nothing　at

all。　The　old　and　useful　nobility　was　gradually　forced　to　give

up　its　former　shares　in　the　government　of　the　provinces。　A　little

Royal　bureaucrat；　his　fingers　splashed　with　ink；　sitting　behind

the　greenish　windows　of　a　government　building　in　faraway

Paris；　now　performed　the　task　which　a　hundred　years

before　had　been　the　duty　of　the　feudal　Lord。　The　feudal　Lord；

deprived　of　all　work；　moved　to　Paris　to　amuse　himself　as　best

he　could　at　the　court。　Soon　his　estates　began　to　suffer　from