the story of mankind-第52章

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the　Sea。　William；　to　save　Leyden；　cut　the　dykes；　created　a

shallow　inland　sea；　and　delivered　the　town　with　the　help　of　a

strangely　equipped　navy　consisting　of　scows　and　flat…bottomed

barges　which　were　rowed　and　pushed　and　pulled　through　the

mud　until　they　reached　the　city　walls。



It　was　the　first　time　that　an　army　of　the　invincible　Spanish

king　had　suffered　such　a　humiliating　defeat。　It　surprised　the

world　just　as　the　Japanese　victory　of　Mukden；　in　the　Russian…

Japanese　war；　surprised　our　own　generation。　The　Protestant

powers　took　fresh　courage　and　Philip　devised　new　means　for

the　purpose　of　conquering　his　rebellious　subjects。　He　hired

a　poor　half…witted　fanatic　to　go　and　murder　William　of

Orange。　But　the　sight　of　their　dead　leader　did　not　bring　the

Seven　Provinces　to　their　knees。　On　the　contrary　it　made　them

furiously　angry。　In　the　year　1581；　the　Estates　General　（the

meeting　of　the　representatives　of　the　Seven　Provinces）　came

together　at　the　Hague　and　most　solemnly　abjured　their

‘‘wicked　king　Philip''　and　themselves　assumed　the　burden

of　sovereignty　which　thus　far　had　been　invested　in　their

‘‘King　by　the　Grace　of　God。''



This　is　a　very　important　event　in　the　history　of　the　great

struggle　for　political　liberty。　It　was　a　step　which　reached

much　further　than　the　uprising　of　the　nobles　which　ended　with

the　signing　of　the　Magna　Carta。　These　good　burghers　said

‘‘Between　a　king　and　his　subjects　there　is　a　silent　understanding

that　both　sides　shall　perform　certain　services　and　shall

recognise　certain　definite　duties。　If　either　party　fails　to　live

up　to　this　contract；　the　other　has　the　right　to　consider　it　ter…

minated。''　The　American　subjects　of　King　George　III　in

the　year　1776　came　to　a　similar　conclusion。　But　they　had　three

thousand　miles　of　ocean　between　themselves　and　their　ruler

and　the　Estates　General　took　their　decision　（which　meant　a

slow　death　in　case　of　defeat）　within　hearing　of　the　Spanish

guns　and　although　in　constant　fear　of　an　avenging　Spanish

fleet。



The　stories　about　a　mysterious　Spanish　fleet　that　was　to　conquer

both　Holland　and　England；　when　Protestant　Queen

Elizabeth　had　succeeded　Catholic　‘‘Bloody　Mary''　was　an　old

one。　For　years　the　sailors　of　the　waterfront　had　talked

about　it。　In　the　eighties　of　the　sixteenth　century；　the

rumour　took　a　definite　shape。　According　to　pilots　who　had

been　in　Lisbon；　all　the　Spanish　and　Portuguese　wharves　were

building　ships。　And　in　the　southern　Netherlands　（in　Belgium）

the　Duke　of　Parma　was　collecting　a　large　expeditionary

force　to　be　carried　from　Ostend　to　London　and　Amsterdam

as　soon　as　the　fleet　should　arrive。



In　the　year　1586　the　Great　Armada　set　sail　for　the　north。

But　the　harbours　of　the　Flemish　coast　were　blockaded　by　a

Dutch　fleet　and　the　Channel　was　guarded　by　the　English；　and

the　Spaniards；　accustomed　to　the　quieter　seas　of　the　south；　did

not　know　how　to　navigate　in　this　squally　and　bleak　northern

climate。　What　happened　to　the　Armada　once　it　was　attacked

by　ships　and　by　storms　I　need　not　tell　you。　A　few　ships；　by

sailing　around　Ireland；　escaped　to　tell　the　terrible　story　of

defeat。　The　others　perished　and　lie　at　the　bottom　of　the　North

Sea。



Turn　about　is　fair　play。　The　British　nod　the　Dutch　Prot…

estants　now　carried　the　war　into　the　territory　of　the　enemy。

Before　the　end　of　the　century；　Houtman；　with　the　help　of　a

booklet　written　by　Linschoten　（a　Hollander　who　had　been　in

the　Portuguese　service）；　had　at　last　discovered　the　route　to

the　Indies。　As　a　result　the　great　Dutch　East　India　Company

was　founded　and　a　systematic　war　upon　the　Portuguese　and

Spanish　colonies　in　Asia　and　Africa　was　begun　in　all　seriousness。



It　was　during　this　early　era　of　colonial　conquest　that　a

curious　lawsuit　was　fought　out　in　the　Dutch　courts。　Early　in

the　seventeenth　century　a　Dutch　Captain　by　the　name　of　van

Heemskerk；　a　man　who　had　made　himself　famous　as　the　head

of　an　expedition　which　had　tried　to　discover　the　North　Eastern

Passage　to　the　Indies　and　who　had　spent　a　winter　on　the　frozen

shores　of　the　island　of　Nova　Zembla；　had　captured　a　Portuguese

ship　in　the　straits　of　Malacca。　You　will　remember　that

the　Pope　had　divided　the　world　into　two　equal　shares；　one　of

which　had　been　given　to　the　Spaniards　and　the　other　to　the

Portuguese。　The　Portuguese　quite　naturally　regarded　the

water　which　surrounded　their　Indian　islands　as　part　of　their

own　property　and　since；　for　the　moment；　they　were　not　at　war

with　the　United　Seven　Netherlands；　they　claimed　that　the

captain　of　a　private　Dutch　trading　company　had　no　right　to

enter　their　private　domain　and　steal　their　ships。　And　they

brought　suit。　The　directors　of　the　Dutch　East　India　Company

hired　a　bright　young　lawyer；　by　the　name　of　De　Groot　or

Grotius；　to　defend　their　case。　He　made　the　astonishing　plea

that　the　ocean　is　free　to　all　comers。　Once　outside　the　distance

which　a　cannon　ball　fired　from　the　land　can　reach；　the　sea　is

or　（according　to　Grotius）　ought　to　be；　a　free　and　open　highway

to　all　the　ships　of　all　nations。　It　was　the　first　time　that　this

startling　doctrine　had　been　publicly　pronounced　in　a　court

of　law。　It　was　opposed　by　all　the　other　seafaring　people。　To

counteract　the　effect　of　Grotius'　famous　plea　for　the　‘‘Mare

Liberum；''　or　‘‘Open　Sea；''　John　Selden；　the　Englishman；

wrote　his　famous　treatise　upon　the　‘‘Mare　Clausum''　or　‘‘Closed

Sea''　which　treated　of　the　natural　right　of　a　sovereign　to　regard

the　seas　which　surrounded　his　country　as　belonging　to　his　territory。

I　mention　this　here　because　the　question　had　not　yet

been　decided　and　during　the　last　war　caused　all　sorts　of

difficulties　and　complications。



To　return　to　the　warfare　between　Spaniard　and　Hollander

and　Englishman；　before　twenty　years　were　over　the　most

valuable　colonies　of　the　Indies　and　the　Cape　of　Good　Hope　and

Ceylon　and　those　along　the　coast　of　China　and　even　Japan　were

in　Protestant　hands。　In　1621　a　West　Indian　Company　was

founded　which　conquered　Brazil　and　in　North　America　built

a　fortress　called　Nieuw　Amsterdam　at　the　mouth　of　the　river

which　Henry　Hudson　had　discovered　in　the　year　1609



These　new　colonies　enriched　both　England　and　the　Dutch

Republic　to　such　an　extent　that　they　could　hire　foreign　soldiers

to　do　their　fighting　on　land　while　they　devoted　themselves

to　commerce　and　trade。　To　them　the　Protestant　revolt　meant

independence　and　prosperity。　But　in　many　other　parts　of

Europe　it　meant　a　succession　of　horrors　compared　to　which　the

last　war　was　a　mild　excursion　of　kindly　Sunday…school　boys。



The　Thirty　Years　War　which　broke　out　in　the　year　1618

and　which　ended　with　the　famous　treaty　of　Westphalia　in　1648

was　the　perfectly　natural　result　of　a　century　of　ever　increasing

religious　hatred。　It　was；　as　I　have　said；　a　terrible　war。　Everybody

fought　everybody　else　and　the　struggle　ended　only　when

all　parties　had　been　thoroughly　exhausted　and　could　fight　no

longer。



In　less　than　a　generation　it　turned　many　parts　of　central

Europe　into　a　wilderness；　where　the　hungry　peasants　fought

for　the　carcass　of　a　dead　horse　with　the　even　hungrier　wolf。

Five…sixths　of　all　the　German　towns　and　villages　were　destroyed。

The　Palatinate；　in　western　Germany；　was　plundered

twenty…eight　times。　And　a　population　of　eighteen　million

people　was　reduced　to　four　million。



The　hostilities　began　almost　as　soon　as　Ferdinand　II　of

the　House　of　Habsburg　had　been　elected　Emperor。　He　was

the　product　of　a　most　careful　Jesuit　training　and　was　a　most

obedient　and　devout　son　of　the　Church。　The　vow　which　he　had

made　as　a　young　man；　that　he　would　eradicate　all　sects　and

all　heresies　from　his　domains；　Ferdinand　kept　to　the　best　of

his　ability。　Two　days　before　his　election；　his　chief　opponent；

Frederick；　the　Protestant　Elector　of　the　Palatinate　and　a

son…in…law　of　James　I　of　England；　had　been　made　King　of

Bohemia；　in　direct　violation　of　Ferdinand's　wishes。



At　once　the　Habsburg　armies　marc