evolution and ethics and other essays-第24章

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their　production　than　upon　that　of　the　blackberries　on　the　bushes
about　the　pastures。　For　the　most　part　the　increment　would　be
thoroughly　unearned；　and；　if　it　is　a　rule　of　absolute　political　ethics
that　owners　have　no　claim　upon　〃betterment〃　brought　about
independently　of　their　own　labour；　then　the　shepherd　would　have　no
claim　to　at　least　nine…tenths　of　the　increase　of　the　flock。

But　if　the　shepherd　has　no　real　claim　to　the　title　of　〃producer；〃　who
has？　　Are　the　rams　and　ewes　the　true　〃producers〃？　Certainly　their
title　is　better　if；　borrowing　from　the　old　terminology　of　chemistry；
they　only　claim　to　be　regarded　as　the　〃proximate　principles〃　of
production。　And　yet；　if　strict　justice　is　to　be　dispensed；　even　they
are　to　be　regarded　rather　as　collectors　and　distributors　than　as
〃producers。〃　For　all　that　they　really　do　is　to　collect；　slightly
modify；　and　render　easily　accessible；　the　vital　capital　which　already
exists　in　the　green　herbs　on　which　they　feed；　but　in　such　a　form　as　to
be　practically　out　of　the　reach　of　man。

Thus；　from　an　economic　point　of　view；　the　sheep　are　more　comparable　to
confectioners　than　to　producers。　The　usefulness　of　biscuit　lies　in　the
raw　flour　of　which　it　is　made；　but　raw　flour　does　not　answer　as　an
article　of　human　diet；　and　biscuit　does。　So　the　usefulness　of　mutton
lies　mainly　in　certain　chemical　compounds　which　it　＇155＇　contains：　the
sheep　gets　them　out　of　grass；　we　cannot　live　on　grass；　but　we　can　on
mutton。

Now；　herbaceous　and　all　other　green　plants　stand　alone　among
terrestrial　natural　bodies；　in　so　far　as；　under　the　influence　of
light；　they　possess　the　power　to　build　up；　out　of　the　carbonic　acid
gas　in　the　atmosphere；　water　and　certain　nitrogenous　and　mineral
salts；　those　substances　which　in　the　animal　organism　are　utilised　as
work…stuff。　They　are　the　chief　and；　for　practical　purposes；　the　sole
producers　of　that　vital　capital　which　we　have　seen　to　be　the　necessary
antecedent　of　every　act　of　labour。　Every　green　plant　is　a　laboratory
in　which；　so　long　as　the　sun　shines　upon　it；　materials　furnished　by
the　mineral　world；　gases；　water；　saline　compounds；　are　worked　up　into
those　foodstuffs　without　which　animal　life　cannot　be　carried　on。　And
since；　up　to　the　present　time；　synthetic　chemistry　has　not　advanced　so
far　as　to　achieve　this　feat；　the　green　plant　may　be　said　to　be　the
only　living　worker　whose　labour　directly　results　in　the　production　of
that　vital　capital　which　is　the　necessary　antecedent　of　human　labour。*
Nor　is　this　statement　a　paradox　involving　perpetual　motion；　because
the　energy　by　which　the　plant　does　its　work　is　supplied　by　the
sunthe　primordial　capitalist　so　far　as　we　are　concerned。　But　＇156＇
it　cannot　be　too　strongly　impressed　upon　the　mind　that　sunshine；　air；
water；　the　best　soil　that　is　to　be　found　on　the　surface　of　the　earth；
might　co…exist；　yet　without　plants；　there　is　no　known　agency　competent
to　generate　the　so…called　〃protein　compounds；〃　by　which　alone　animal
life　can　be　permanently　supported。　And　not　only　are　plants　thus
essential；　but；　in　respect　of　particular　kinds　of　animals；　they　must
be　plants　of　a　particular　nature。　If　there　were　no　terrestrial　green
plants　but；　say；　cypresses　and　mosses；　pastoral　and　agricultural　life
would　be　alike　impossible；　indeed；　it　is　difficult　to　imagine　the
possibility　of　the　existence　of　any　large　animal；　as　the　labour
required　to　get　at　a　sufficiency　of　the　store　of　food…stuffs；
contained　in　such　plants　as　these；　could　hardly　extract　from　them　an
equivalent　for　the　waste　involved　in　that　expenditure　of　work。

　　　　*　It　remains　to　be　seen　whether　the　plants　which　have　no
　　　　chlorophyll；　and　flourish　in　darkness；　such　as　the　Fungi；　can
　　　　live　upon　purely　mineral　food。

We　are　compact　of　dust　and　air；　from　that　we　set　out；　and　to　that
complexion　must　we　come　at　last。　The　plant　either　directly；　or　by　some
animal　intermediary；　lends　us　the　capital　which　enables　us　to　carry　on
the　business　of　life；　as　we　flit　through　the　upper　world；　from　the　one
term　of　our　journey　to　the　other。　Popularly；　no　doubt；　it　is
permissible　to　speak　of　the　soil　as　a　〃producer；〃　just　as　we　may　talk
of　the　daily　movement　of　the　sun。　　But；　as　I　have　elsewhere　remarked；
propositions　which　are　to　bear　any　deductive　strain　that　may　be　put
upon　them　must　run　the　risk　of　＇157＇　seeming　pedantic；　rather　than
that　of　being　inaccurate。　And　the　statement　that　land；　in　the　sense　of
cultivable　soil；　is　a　producer；　or　even　one　of　the　essentials　of
economic　production；　is　anything　but　accurate。　The　process　of
water…culture；　in　which　a　plant　is　not　〃planted〃　in　any　soil；　but　is
merely　supported　in　water　containing　in　solution　the　mineral
ingredients　essential　to　that　plant；　is　now　thoroughly　understood；
and；　if　it　were　worth　while；　a　crop　yielding　abundant　food…stuffs
could　be　raised　on　an　acre　of　fresh　water；　no　less　than　on　an　acre　of
dry　land。　In　the　Arctic　regions；　again；　land　has　nothing　to　do　with
〃production〃　in　the　social　economy　of　the　Esquimaux；　who　live　on　seals
and　other　marine　animals；　and　might；　like　Proteus；　shepherd　the　flocks
of　Poseidon　if　they　had　a　mind　for　pastoral　life。　But　the　seals　and
the　bears　are　dependent　on　other　inhabitants　of　the　sea；　until；
somewhere　in　the　series；　we　come　to　the　minute　green　plants　which
float　in　the　ocean；　and　are　the　real　〃producers〃　by　which　the　whole　of
its　vast　animal　population　is　supported。*　Thus；　when　we　find　set　forth
as　an　〃absolute〃　＇158＇　truth　the　statement　that　the　essential　factors
in　economic　production　are　land；　capital　and　labourwhen　this　is
offered　as　an　axiom　whence　all　sorts　of　other　important　truths　may　be
deducedit　is　needful　to　remember　that　the　assertion　is　true　only
with　a　qualification。　Undoubtedly　〃vital　capital〃　is　essential；　for；
as　we　have　seen；　no　human　work　can　be　done　unless　it　exists；　not　even
that　internal　work　of　the　body　which　is　necessary　to　passive　life。
But；　with　respect　to　labour　（that　is；　human　labour）　I　hope　to　have
left　no　doubt　on　the　reader's　mind　that；　in　regard　to　production；　the
importance　of　human　labour　may　be　so　small　as　to　be　almost　a　vanishing
quantity。　Moreover；　it　is　certain　that　there　is　no　approximation　to　a
fixed　ratio　between　the　expenditure　of　labour　and　the　production　of
that　vital　capital　which　is　the　foundation　of　all　wealth。　For；　suppose
that　we　introduce　into　our　suppositious　pastoral　paradise　beasts　of
prey　and　rival　shepherds；　the　amount　of　labour　thrown　upon　the
sheep…owner　may　increase　almost　indefinitely；　and　its　importance　as　a
condition　of　production　may　be　enormously　augmented；　while　the
quantity　of　produce　remains　stationary。　Compare　for　a　moment　the
unimportance　of　the　shepherd's　labour；　under　the　circumstances　first
defined；　with　its　indispensability　in　countries　in　which　the　water　for
the　sheep　has　to　be　drawn　from　deep　＇159＇　wells；　or　in　which　the　flock
has　to　be　defended　from　wolves　or　from　human　depredators。　As　to　land；
it　has　been　shown　that；　except　as　affording　mere　room　and　standing
ground；　the　importance　of　land；　great　as　it　may　be；　is　secondary。　The
one　thing　needful　for　economic　production　is　the　green　plant；　as　the
sole　producer　of　vital　capital　from　natural　inorganic　bodies。　Men
might　exist　without　labour　（in　the　ordinary　sense）　and　without　land；
without　plants　they　must　inevitably　perish。

　　　　*　In　some　remarkable　passages　of　the　Botany　of　Sir　James　Ross's
　　　　Antarctic　voyage；　which　took　place　half　a　century　ago；　Sir
　　　　Joseph　Hooker　demonstrated　the　dependence　of　the　animal　life　of
　　　　the　sea　upon　the　minute；　indeed　microscopic；　plants　which　float
　　　　in　it：　a　marvellous　example　of　what　may　be　done　by
　　　　water…culture。　One　might　indulge　in　dreams　of　cultivating　and
　　　　improving　diatoms；　until　the　domesticated　bore　the　same
　　　　relation　to　the　wild　forms；　as　cauliflowers　to　the　primitive
　　　　Brassica　oleracea；　without　passing　beyond　the　limits　of　fair
　　　　scientific　speculation。

That　which　is　true　of　the　purely　pastoral　condition　is　a　fortiori　true
of　the　purely　agricultural*　condition；　in　which　the　existence　of　the
cultivator　is　directly　dependent　on　the　production　of　vital　capital　by
the　plants　which　he　cultivates。　Here；