evolution and ethics and other essays-第12章
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Problems settled in a rough and ready way by rude men; absorbed in
action; demand renewed attention and show themselves to be still
unread riddles when men have time to think。 The beneficent demon;
doubt; whose name is Legion and who dwells amongst the tombs of old
faiths; enters into mankind and thenceforth refuses to be cast out。
Sacred customs; venerable dooms of ancestral wisdom; hallowed by
tradition and professing to hold good for all time; are put to the
question。 Cultured reflection asks for their credentials; judges them
by its own standards; finally; gathers those of which it approves into
ethical systems; in which the reasoning is rarely much more than a
decent pretext for the adoption of foregone conclusions。
One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the
conception of justice。 Society is impossible unless those who are
associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct towards one
another; its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide
by that agreement; and; so far as they waver; that mutual trust which
is the bond of society is weakened or destroyed。 Wolves could not hunt
in packs except for the real; though unexpressed; understanding that
they should not attack one another during the chase。 The most
rudimentary polity is a pack of men living under the like tacit; or
expressed; '57' understanding; and having made the very important
advance upon wolf society; that they agree to use the force of the
whole body against individuals who violate it and in favour of those
who observe it。 This observance of a common understanding; with the
consequent distribution of punishments and rewards according to
accepted rules; received the name of justice; while the contrary was
called injustice。 Early ethics did not take much note of the animus of
the violator of the rules。 But civilization could not advance far;
without the establishment of a capital distinction between the case of
involuntary and that of wilful misdeed; between a merely wrong action
and a guilty one。 And; with increasing refinement of moral
appreciation; the problem of desert; which arises out of this
distinction; acquired more and more theoretical and practical
importance。 If life must be given for life; yet it was recognized that
the unintentional slayer did not altogether deserve death; and; by a
sort of compromise between the public and the private conception of
justice; a sanctuary was provided in which he might take refuge from
the avenger of blood。
The idea of justice thus underwent a gradual sublimation from
punishment and reward according to acts; to punishment and reward
according to desert; or; in other words; according to motive。
Righteousness; that is; action from right motive; '58' not only became
synonymous with justice; but the positive constituent of innocence and
the very heart of goodness。
Now when the ancient sage; whether Indian or Greek; who had attained to
this conception of goodness; looked the world; and especially human
life; in the face; he found it as hard as we do to bring the course of
evolution into harmony with even the elementary requirement of the
ethical ideal of the just and the good。
If there is one thing plainer than another; it is that neither the
pleasures nor the pains of life; in the merely animal world; are
distributed according to desert; for it is admittedly impossible for
the lower orders of sentient beings; to deserve either the one or the
other。 If there is a generalization from the facts of human life which
has the assent of thoughtful men in every age and country; it is that
the violator of ethical rules constantly escapes the punishment which
he deserves; that the wicked flourishes like a green bay tree; while;
the righteous begs his bread; that the sins of the fathers are visited
upon the children; that; in the realm of nature; ignorance is punished
just as severely as wilful wrong; and that thousands upon thousands of
innocent beings suffer for the crime; or the unintentional trespass of
one。
Greek and Semite and Indian are agreed upon '59' this subject。 The book
of Job is at one with the 〃Works and Days〃 and the Buddhist Sutras;
the Psalmist and the Preacher of Israel; with the Tragic Poets of
Greece。 What is a more common motive of the ancient tragedy in fact;
than the unfathomable injustice of the nature of things; what is more
deeply felt to be true than its presentation of the destruction of the
blameless by the work of his own hands; or by the fatal operation of
the sins of others? Surely Oedipus was pure of heart; it was the
natural sequence of eventsthe cosmic processwhich drove him; in
all innocence; to slay his father and become the husband of his
mother; to the desolation of his people and his own headlong ruin。 Or
to step; for a moment; beyond the chronological limits I have set
myself; what constitutes the sempiternal attraction of Hamlet but the
appeal to deepest experience of that history of a no less blameless
dreamer; dragged; in spite of himself; into a world out of joint
involved in a tangle of crime and misery; created by one of the prime
agents of the cosmic process as it works in and through man?
Thus; brought before the tribunal of ethics; the cosmos might well seem
to stand condemned。 The conscience of man revolted against the moral
indifference of nature; and the microcosmic atom should have found the
illimitable macrocosm guilty。 But few; or none; ventured to record
that verdict。
'60' In the great Semitic trial of this issue; Job takes refuge in
silence and submission; the Indian and the Greek; less wise perhaps;
attempt to reconcile the irreconcilable and plead for the defendant。
To this end; the Greeks invented Theodicies; while the Indians devised
what; in its ultimate form; must rather be termed a Cosmodicy。 For;
although Buddhism recognizes gods many and lords many; they are
products of the cosmic process; and transitory; however long enduring;
manifestations of its eternal activity。 In the doctrine of
transmigration; whatever its origin; Brahminical and Buddhist
speculation found; ready to hand'Note 4' the means of constructing a
plausible vindication of the ways of the cosmos to man。 If this world
is full of pain and sorrow; if grief and evil fall; like the rain;
upon both the just and the unjust; it is because; like the rain; they
are links in the endless chain of natural causation by which past;
present; and future are indissolubly connected; and there is no more
injustice in the one case than in the other。 Every sentient being is
reaping as it has sown; if not in this life; then in one or other of
the infinite series of antecedent existences of which it is the latest
term。 The present distribution of good and evil is; therefore; the
algebraical sum of accumulated positive and negative deserts; or;
rather; it depends on the floating balance of the account。 For it was
not thought necessary that a complete settlement '61' should ever take
place。 Arrears might stand over as a sort of 〃hanging gale;〃 a period
of celestial happiness just earned might be succeeded by ages of
torment in a hideous nether world; the balance still overdue for some
remote ancestral error。 'Note 5'
Whether the cosmic process looks any more moral than at first; after
such a vindication; may perhaps be questioned。 Yet this plea of
justification is not less plausible than others; and none but very
hasty thinkers will reject it on the ground of inherent absurdity。
Like the doctrine of evolution itself; that of transmigration has its
roots in the world of reality; and it may claim such support as the
great argument from analogy is capable of supplying。
Everyday experience familiarizes us with the facts which are grouped
under the name of heredity。 Every one of us bears upon him obvious
marks of his parentage; perhaps of remoter relationships。 More
particularly; the sum of tendencies to act in a certain way; which we
call 〃character;〃 is often to be traced through a long series of
progenitors and collaterals。 So we may justly say that this
〃character〃this moral and intellectual essence of a mandoes
veritably pass over from one fleshly