criminal psychology-第31章

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urselves　in　possession　of　enough　material　for　our　purpose　to　make　it　possible　to　carry　our　studies　further。　The　study　of　this　book　of　Darwin's　I　believe　absolutely　necessary　to　each　criminalistfor　he　meets　in　every　direction；　expositions　and　explanations　that　are　related　to　cases　he　has　already　experienced　in　practice　or　is　sure　to　experience。　I　present　here　only　a　few　of　Darwin's　most　important　notes　and　observations　in　order　to　demonstrate　their　utility　for　our　purpose。

As　subjects　for　study　he　recommends　children　because　they　permit　forms　of　expression　to　appear　vigorously　and　without　constraint；　lunatics；　because　they　are　subject　to　strong　passions　without　control；　galvanized　persons；　in　order　to　facilitate　the　muscles　involved；　and　finally；　to　establish　the　identity　of　expression　among　all　races　of　men　and　beasts。　Of　these　objects　only　children　are　important　for　our　purpose。　The　others　either　are　far　removed　from　our　sphere　of　activity；　or　have　only　theoretic　value。　I　should；　however；　like　to　add　to　the　subjects　of　observation　another；　viz。；　the　simple　unstudied　persons；　peasants　and　such　otherwise　unspoiled　individuals　whom　we　may　believe　innocent　of　all　intention　to　play　a　comedy　with　us。　We　can　learn　much　from　such　people　and　from　children。　And　it　is　to　be　believed　that　in　studying　them　we　are　studying　not　a　special　class　but　are　establishing　a　generally　valid　paradigm　of　the　whole　of　mankind。　Children　have　the　same　features　as　adults　only　clearer　and　simpler。　For；　suppose　we　consider　any　one　of　Darwin's　dicta；e。　g。；　that　in　the　expression　of　anger　and　indignation　the　eyes　shine；　respiration　becomes　more　rapid　and　intense；　the　nostrils　are　somewhat　raised；　the　look　misses　the　opponent；　these　so　intensely　characteristic　indices　occur　equally　in　the　child　and　the　adult。　Neither　shows　more　or　fewer；　and　once　we　have　defined　them　in　the　child　we　have　done　it　for　the　adult　also。　Once　the　physiognomy　of　children　and　simple　people　has　been　studied；

＇1＇　L。　P。　Gratiolet：　De　la　Physiognomie　et　des　Mouvements　d'Expression。　Paris　1865。

　the　further　study　of　different　kinds　of　people　is　no　longer　difficult；　there　is　only　the　intentional　and　customary　masking　of　expression　to　look　out　for；　for　the　rest；　the　already　acquired　principles；　mutandis　mutatis；　are　to　be　used。

Darwin　posits　three　general　principles　on　which　most　expressions　and　gestures　are　to　be　explained。　They　are　briefly：

I。　The　principle　of　purposeful　associated　habits。

II。　The　principle　of　contradication。

III。　The　principle　of　the　direct　activity　of　the　nervous　system。

With　regard　to　the　first。　When；　in　the　course　of　a　long　series　of　generations；　any　desire；　experience；　or　disinclination；　etc。；　has　led　to　some　voluntary　action；　then；　as　often　as　the　same　or　any　analogous　associated　experience　is　undergone；　there　will　arise　a　tendency　to　the　realization　of　a　similar　action。　This　action　may　no　longer　have　any　use　but　is　inherited　and　generally　becomes　a　mere　reflex。

This　becomes　clearer　when　one　notices　how　often　habit　facilitates　very　complex　action：the　habits　of　animals；　the　high　steps　of　horses；　the　pointing　of　pointers；　the　sucking　of　calves；　etc。　It　is　difficult　for　us　in　falling　to　make　opposite　movements　to　stretching　out　the　arms；　even　in　bed；　we　draw　on　our　gloves　unconsciously。　Gratiolet　says：　‘‘Whoever　energetically　denies　some　point；　etc。；　shuts　his　eyes；　if　he　assents　he　nods　and　opens　his　eyes　wide。　Whoever　describes　a　terrible　thing　shuts　his　eyes　and　shakes　his　head；　whoever　looks　closely　raises　his　eye…brows。　In　the　attempt　to　think　the　same　thing　is　done　or　the　eye…brows　are　contracted　both　make　the　glance　keener。　Thence　follows　the　reflex　activity。''

With　regard　to　the　second。　Dogs　who　are　quarrelling　with　cats　assume　the　appearance　of　battleif　they　are　kindly…minded　they　do　the　opposite；　although　this　serves　no　purpose。　M。　Taylor＇1＇　says；　that　the　gesture　language　of　the　Cistercians　depends　considerably　on　antithesis；　e。　g。；　shrugging　the　shoulders　is　the　opposite　of　firmness；　immovability。

With　regard　to　the　direct　activity　of　the　nervous　system；　examples　are　paling；　trembling　（fear；　terror；　pain；　cold；　fever；　horror；　joy）；　palpitation　of　the　heart；　blushing；　perspiring；　exertion　of　strength；　tears；　pulling　the　hair；　urinating；　etc。　With　these　subdivisions　it　will　be　possible　to　find　some　thoroughfare　and　to　classify　every　phenomenon。

We　want　to　discuss　a　few　more　particulars　in　the　light　of　Darwin's

＇1＇　Taylor：　Early　History　of　Mankind。

　examples。　He　warns　us；　first　of　all；　against　seeing＇1＇　certain　muscle　movements　as　the　result　of　emotional　excitement；　because　they　were　looked　for。　There　are　countless　habits；　especially　among　the　movements　of　the　features；　which　happen　accidentally　or　as　the　result　of　some　passing　pain　and　which　have　no　significance。　Such　movements　are　often　of　the　greatest　clearness；　and　do　not　permit　the　unexperienced　observer　to　doubt　that　they　have　important　meanings；　although　they　have　no　relation　whatever　to　any　emotional　condition。　Even　if　it　is　agreed　only　to　depend　on　changes　of　the　whole　face；　already　established　as　having　a　definite　meaning；　there　is　still　danger　of　making　mistakes；　because　well　accredited　facial　conditions　may　occur　in　another　way　（as　matters　of　habit；　nervous　disturbances；　wounds；　etc。）。　Hence　in　this　matter；　too；　care　and　attention　are　required；　for　if　we　make　use　of　any　one　of　the　Darwinian　norms；　as；　for　example；　that　the　eyes　are　closed　when　we　do　not　want　to　see　a　thing　or　when　we　dislike　it；　we　still　must　grant　that　there　are　people　to　whom　it　has　become　habitual　to　close　their　eyes　under　other　and　even　opposed　conditions。

We　must　grant　that；　with　the　exception　of　such　cases；　the　phenomena　are　significant　during　examinations；　as　when　we　show　the　accused　a　very　effective　piece　of　evidence；　（e。　g。：　a　comparison　of　hand…writings　which　is　evidential；）　and　he　closes　his　eyes。　The　act　is　then　characteristic　and　of　importance；　particularly　when　his　words　are　intended　to　contest　the　meaning　of　the　object　in　question。　The　contradiction　between　the　movement　of　his　eyes　and　his　words　is　then　suggestive　enough。　The　same　occurs　when　the　accused　is　shown　the　various　possibilities　that　lie　before　himthe　movement　of　the　examination；　the　correlations　and　consequences。　If　he　finds　them　dangerous；　he　closes　his　eyes。　So　with　witnesses　also；　when　one　of　them；　e。　g。；　deposes　to　more；　and　more　harmfully；　than　according　to　our　own　notion　he　can　explain；　he　will　close　his　eyes；　though　perhaps　for　an　instant　only；　if　the　inevitable　consequences　of　his　deposition　are　expounded　to　him。　If　he　closes　his　eyes　he　has　probably　said　too　much；　and　the　proper　moment　must　not　be　missed　to　appeal　to　his　conscience　and　to　prevent　more　exaggerated　and　irresponsible　assertions。

This　form　of　closing　the　eyes　is　not　to　be　confused　with　the　performances　of　persons　who　want　to　understand　the　importance　of　their　depositions　and　to　collect　their　senses；　or　who　desire　to　review

＇1＇　J。　Reid：　The　Muscular　Sense。　Journal　of　Mental　Science；　XLVII；　510。

　the　story　mentally　and　consider　its　certainty。　These　two　forms　of　closing　the　eyes　are　different：　the　first；　which　wants　to　shut　out　the　consequences　of　testimony；　is　much　shorter；　the　latter　longer；　because　it　requires　a　good　deal　of　time　to　collect　one's　senses　and　to　consider　a　problem。　The　first；　moreover；　is　accompanied　by　a　perceivable　expression　of　fear；　while　the　latter　is　manifest　only　by　its　duration；　what　is　most　important　is　a　characteristic　contemporary　and　perceivable　defensive　movement　of　the　hand；　and　this　occurs　only　in　the　cases　where　the　desire　is　to　exclude。　This　movement　occurs　even　among　very　phlegmatic　persons；　and　hence　is　comparatively　reliable；　it　is　not　made　by　people　who　want　undisturbedly　to　study　a　question　and　to　that　end　shut　their　eyes。

In　a　similar　way　there　is　significance　in　the　sudden　closing　of　the　mouth　by　either　the　accused　or　the　witness。　Resolution　and　the　shutting　of　the　mouth　are　inseparable；　it　is　as　impossible　to　imagine　a　vacillating；　doubting　person　with　lips　closely　pressed　together；　as　a　firm　and　resolute　person　with　open　mouth。　The　reason　implies　Darwin's　first　law：　that　of　purpo