criminal psychology-第147章
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ccusations of attempted murder by stifling with poisonous or unbreathable gas。 If this typical illusion is unknown to the judge he may find no reason for calling in the physician and theninjustice。
The largest number of olfactory illusions are due to imagination。 Carpenter's frequently cited case of the officials who smelled a corpse while a coffin was being dug up； until finally the coffin was found to be empty； has many fellows。 I once was making an examination of a case of arson； and on approaching the village noted a characteristic odor which is spread by burned animals or men。 When we learned： that the consumed farm lay still an hour's ride from the village； the odor immediately disappeared。 Again； on returning home； I thought I heard the voice of a visitor and immediately smelled her characteristic perfume； but she had not been there that day。
Such illusions are to be explained by the fact that many odors are in the air； that they are not very powerfully differentiated and may hence be turned by means of the imagination into that one which is likely to be most obvious。
The stories told of hyper…sensitives who think they are able to smell the pole of a magnet or the chemicals melted into a glass； belong to this class。 That they do so in good faith may be assumed； but to smell through melted glass is impossible。 Hence it must be believed that such people have really smelled something somewhere and have given this odor this or that particular location。 Something like this occurs when an odor； otherwise found pleasant； suddenly becomes disgusting and unbearable when its source is unknown。 However gladly a man may eat sardines in oil he is likely to turn aside when his eyes are closed and an open can of sardines is held under his nose。 Many delicate forms of cheese emit disgusting odors so long as it is not known that cheese is the source。 The odor that issues from the hands after crabs have been eaten is unbearable； if； however； one bears in mind that the odor is the odor of crabs； it becomes not at all so unpleasant。
Association has much influence。 For a long time I disliked to go to a market where flowers； bouquets； wreaths； etc。； were kept because I smelled dead human bodies。 Finally； I discovered that the odor was due to the fact that I knew most of these flowers to be such as are laid on coffinsare smelled during interment。 Again； many people find perfumes good or bad as they like or dislike the person who makes use of them； and the judgment concerning the pleasantness or unpleasantness of an odor is mainly dependent upon the pleasantness or unpleasantness of associative memories。 When my son； who is naturally a vegetarian and who could never be moved to eat meat； became a doctor； I thought that he could never be brought to endure the odor of the dissecting room。 It did not disturb him in the least； however； and he explained it by saying： ‘‘I do not eat what smells like that； and I can not conceive how you can eat anything from the butcher shops where the odor is exactly like that of the dissecting room。'' What odor is called good or bad； ecstatic or disgusting； is purely a subjective matter and never to be the basis of a universal judgment。 Statements by witnesses concerning perceptions of odor are valueless unless otherwise confirmed。
Section 104。 （b） Hallucinations and Illusions。
The limits between illusions of sense and hallucinations and illusions proper can in no sense be definitely determined inasmuch as any phenomena of the one may be applied to the other； and vice versa。＇1＇ Most safely it may be held that the cause of illusions of sense lies in the nature of sense…organs； while the hallucinations and illusions are due to the activity of the brain。 The latter are much more likely to fall within the scope of the physician than sense… illusions； but at the same time many of them have to be determined upon by the lawyer； inasmuch as they really occur to normal people or to such whose disease is just beginning so that the physician can not yet reach it。 Nevertheless； whenever the lawyer finds himself face to face with a supposed illusion or hallucination he must absolutely call in the physician。 For； as rarely as an ordinary illusion of sense is explicable by the rules of logic or psychology； or even by means of other knowledge or experience at the command of any educated man； so； frequently； do processes occur in cases of hallucination and illusion which require； at the very least； the physiological knowledge of the physician。 Our activity must hence be limited to the perception of the presence of hallucination or illusion； the rest is matter for the psychiatrist。 Small as our concern is； it is important and difficult； for on the one hand we must not appeal to the physician about every stupid fancy or every lie a prisoner utters； and on the other hand we assume a heavy responsibility if we interpret a real hallucination or illusion as a true and real observation。 To acquire knowledge of the nature of these things； therefore； can not be rigorously enough recommended。
Hallucination and illusion have been distinguished by the fact that hallucination implies no external object whatever； while in illusion objects are mistaken and misinterpreted。 When one thing is taken for another； e。 g。； an oven for a man； the rustle of the wind for a human song； we have illusion。 When no objective existence is perceived； e。 g。； when a man is seen to enter； a voice is heard； a touch is felt； although nothing whatever has happened； we have hallucination。 Illusion is partial； hallucination complete； supplementation of an external object。 There is not a correct and definite difference between illusion and hallucination inasmuch as what is present may be so remotely connected with what is perceived that it is no more than a stimulus； and thus illusion may be turned into real hallucination。 One authority calls illusion the conception of an actually present external event which is perceived by the peripheral organs in the form of an idea that does not coincide with the
＇1＇ C。 Wernicke ber Halluzinationen； Ratlosigkeit； Desorientierung etc。 Monatschrift f。 Psychiatrie u。 Neurologie； IX； 1 （1901）。
event。 The mistake does not lie in the defective activity of the senses so much as in the fact that an apperceptive idea is substituted for the perceptive view。 In hallucination every external event is absent； and hence； what is seen is due to a stimulation of the periphery。 Some authorities believe hallucination to be caused by cramp of the sensory nerve。 Others find illusions to be an externally stimulated sense…perception not corresponding to the stimulus； and still others believe it to be essentially normal。 Most human beings are from time to time subject to illusions； indeed； nobody is always sober and intelligent in all his perceptions and convictions。 The luminous center of our intelligent perceptions is wrapped in a cloudy half…shadow of illusion。
Sully＇1＇ aims to distinguish the essential nature of illusion from that characterized by ordinary language。 Illusion； according to him； is often used to denote mistakes which do not imply untrue perceptions。 We say a man has an illusion who thinks too much of himself； or when he tells stories otherwise than as they happen because of a weakness of memory。 Illusion is every form of mistake which substitutes any direct self…evident or intuitive knowledge； whether as sense…perception or as any other form。
Nowadays the cause of hallucination and illusion is sought in the over…excitement of the cerebro…spinal system。 As this stimulation may be very various in its intensity and significance； from the momentary rush of blood to complete lunacy； so hallucinations and illusions may be insignificant or signs of very serious mental disturbances。 When we seek the form of these phenomena； we find that all those psychical events belong to it which have not been _*purposely_ performed or lied about。 When Brutus sees Csar's ghost； Macbeth； Banquo's ghost； Nicholas； his son； these are distinctly hallucinations or illusions of the same kind as those ‘‘really and truly'' seen by our nurses。 The stories of such people have no significance for the criminalist；
