the boss and the machine-第6章

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stimulated　industry。　Exports　of　raw　material　and　food　products
stimulated　mining；　grazing；　and　farming。　European　capital　sought
investments　in　American　railroads；　mines；　and　industrial　under…
takings。　In　the　decade　following　the　war　the　output　of　pig　iron
doubled；　that　of　coal　multiplied　by　five；　and　that　of　steel　by
one　hundred。　Superior　iron　and　copper；　Pennsylvania　coal　and　oil；
Nevada　and　California　gold　and　silver；　all　yielded　their　enormous
values　to　this　new　call　of　enterprise。　Inventions　and
manufactures　of　all　kinds　flourished。　During　1850…60
manufacturing　establishments　had　increased　by　fourteen　per　cent。
During　1860…70　they　increased　seventy…nine　per　cent。

The　Homestead　Act　of　May　20；　1862；　opened　vast　areas　of　public
lands　to　a　new　immigration。　The　flow　of　population　was　westward；
and　the　West　called　for　communication　with　the　East。　The　Union
Pacific　and　Central　Pacific　railways；　the　pioneer
transcontinental　lines；　fostered　on　generous　grants　of　land；　were
the　tokens　of　the　new　transportation　movement。　Railroads　were
pushing　forward　everywhere　with　unheard…of　rapidity。　Short　lines
were　being　merged　into　far…reaching　systems。　In　the　early
seventies　the　Pennsylvania　system　was　organized　and　the
Vanderbilts　acquired　control　of　lines　as　far　west　as　Chicago。
Soon　the　Baltimore　and　Ohio　system　extended　its　empire　of　trade
to　the　Mississippi。　Half　a　dozen　ambitious　trans…Mississippi
systems；　connecting　with　four　new　transcontinental　projects；　were
put　into　operation。

Prosperity　is　always　the　opportunity　of　the　politician。　What　is
of　greatest　significance　to　the　student　of　politics　is　that
prosperity　at　this　time　was　organized　on　a　new　basis。　Before　the
war　business　had　been　conducted　largely　by　individuals　or
partnerships。　The　unit　was　small；　the　amount　of　capital　needed
was　limited。　But　now　the　unit　was　expanding　so　rapidly；　the　need
for　capital　was　so　lavish；　the　empire　of　trade　so　extensive；　that
a　new　mechanism　of　ownership　was　necessary。　This　device；　of
course；　was　the　corporation。　It　had；　indeed；　existed　as　a　trading
unit　for　many　years。　But　the　corporation　before　1860　was
comparatively　small　and　was　generally　based　upon　charters　granted
by　special　act　of　the　legislature。

No　other　event　has　had　so　practical　a　bearing　on　our　politics　and
our　economic　and　social　life　as　the　advent　of　the　corporate
device　for　owning　and　manipulating　private　business。　For　it　links
the　omnipotence　of　the　State　to　the　limitations　of　private
ownership；　it　thrusts　the　interests　of　private　business　into
every　legislature　that　grants　charters　or　passes　regulating　acts；
it　diminishes；　on　the　other　hand；　that　stimulus　to　honesty　and
correct　dealing　which　a　private　individual　discerns　to　be　his
greatest　asset　in　trade；　for　it　replaces　individual
responsibility　with　group　responsibility　and　scatters　ownership
among　so　large　a　number　of　persons　that　sinister　manipulation　is
possible。

But　if　the　private　corporation；　through　its　interest　in　broad
charter　privileges　and　liberal　corporation　laws　and　its　devotion
to　the　tariff　and　to　conservative　financial　policies；　found　it
convenient　to　do　business　with　the　politician　and　his
organization；　the　quasi…public　corporations；　especially　the　steam
railroads　and　street　railways；　found　it　almost　essential　to　their
existence。　They　received　not　only　their　franchises　but　frequently
large　bonuses　from　the　public　treasury。　The　Pacific　roads　alone
were　endowed　with　an　empire　of　145；000；000　acres　of　public　land。
States；　counties；　and　cities　freely　loaned　their　credit　and　gave
ample　charters　to　new　railway　lines　which　were　to　stimulate
prosperity。

City　councils；　legislatures；　mayors；　governors；　Congress；　and
presidents　were　drawn　into　the　maelstrom　of　commercialism。　It　is
not　surprising　that　side　by　side　with　the　new　business
organization　there　grew　up　a　new　political　organization；　and　that
the　new　business　magnate　was　accompanied　by　a　new　political
magnate。　The　party　machine　and　the　party　boss　were　the　natural
product　of　the　time；　which　was　a　time　of　gain　and　greed。　It　was　a
sordid　reaction；　indeed；　from　the　high　principles　that　sought
victory　on　the　field　of　battle　and　that　found　their　noblest
embodiment　in　the　character　of　Abraham　Lincoln。

The　dominant　and　domineering　party　chose　the　leading　soldier　of
the　North　as　its　candidate　for　President。　General　Grant；　elected
as　a　popular　idol　because　of　his　military　genius；　possessed
neither　the　experience　nor　the　skill　to　countermove　the
machinations　of　designing　politicians　and　their　business　allies。
On　the　other　hand；　he　soon　displayed　an　admiration　for　business
success　that　placed　him　at　once　in　accord　with　the　spirit　of　the
hour。　He　exalted　men　who　could　make　money　rather　than　men　who
could　command　ideas。　He　chose　Alexander　T。　Stewart；　the　New　York
merchant　prince；　one　of　the　three　richest　men　of　his　day；　for
Secretary　of　the　Treasury。　The　law；　however；　forbade　the
appointment　to　this　office　of　any　one　who　should　〃directly　or
indirectly　be　concerned　or　interested　in　carrying　on　the　business
of　trade　or　commerce；〃　and　Stewart　was　disqualified。　Adolph　E。
Borie　of　Philadelphia；　whose　qualifications　were　the　possession
of　great　wealth　and　the　friendship　of　the　President；　was　named
Secretary　of　the　Navy。　Another　personal　friend；　John　A。　Rawlins；
was　named　Secretary　of　War。　A　third　friend；　Elihu　B。　Washburne　of
Illinois；　was　made　Secretary　of　State。　Washburne　soon　resigned；
and　Hamilton　Fish　of　New　York　was　appointed　in　his　place。　Fish；
together　with　General　Jacob　D。　Cox　of　Ohio；　Secretary　of　the
Interior；　and　Judge　E。　Rockwood　Hoar　of　Massachusetts；
Attorney…General；　formed　a　strong　triumvirate　of　ability　and
character　in　the　Cabinet。　But；　while　Grant　displayed　pleasure　in
the　companionship　of　these　eminent　men；　they　never　possessed　his
complete　confidence。　When　the　machinations　for　place　and　favor
began；　Hoar　and　Cox　were　in　the　way。　Hoar　had　offended　the　Senate
in　his　recommendations　for　federal　circuit　judges　（the　circuit
court　was　then　newly　established）；　and　when　the　President　named
him　for　Justice　of　the　Supreme　Court；　Hoar　was　rejected。　Senator
Cameron；　one　of　the　chief　spoils　politicians　of　the　time；　told
Hoar　frankly　why：　〃What　could　you　expect　for　a　man　who　had
snubbed　seventy　Senators！〃　A　few　months　later　（June；　1870）；　the
President　bluntly　asked　for　Hoar's　resignation；　a　sacrifice　to
the　gods　of　the　Senate；　to　purchase　their　favor　for　the　Santo
Domingo　treaty。

Cox　resigned　in　the　autumn。　As　Secretary　of　the　Interior　he　had
charge　of　the　Patent　Office；　Census　Bureau；　and　Indian　Service；
all　of　them　requiring　many　appointments。　He　had　attempted　to
introduce　a　sort　of　civil　service　examination　for　applicants　and
had　vehemently　protested　against　political　assessments　levied　on
clerks　in　his　department。　He　especially　offended　Senators　Cameron
and　Chandler；　party　chieftains　who　had　the　ear　of　the　President。
General　Cox　stated　the　matter　plainly：　〃My　views　of　the　necessity
of　reform　in　the　civil　service　had　brought　me　more　or　less　into
collision　with　the　plans　of　our　active　political　managers　and　my
sense　of　duty　has　obliged　me　to　oppose　some　of　their　methods　of
action。〃　These　instances　reveal　how　the　party　chieftains　insisted
inexorably　upon　their　demands。　To　them　the　public　service　was
principally　a　means　to　satisfy　party　ends；　and　the　chief　duty　of
the　President　and　his　Cabinet　was　to　satisfy　the　claims　of　party
necessity。　General　Cox　said　that　distributing　offices　occupied
〃the　larger　part　of　the　time　of　the　President　and　all　his
Cabinet。〃　General　Garfield　wrote　（1877）：　〃One…third　of　the
working　hours　of　Senators　and　Representatives　is　hardly
sufficient　to　meet　the　demands　made　upon　them　in　reference　to
appointments　to　office。〃

By　the　side　of　the　partizan　motives　stalked　the　desire　for　gain。
There　were　those　to　whom　parties　meant　but　the　opportunity　for
sudden　wealth。　The　President's　admiration　for　commercial　success
and　his　inability　to　read　the　motives　of　sycophants　multiplied
their　opportunities；　and　in　the　eight　years　of　his　administration
there　was　consummated　the　baneful　union　of　business　and　politics。

During　the　sec