the boss and the machine-第25章

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is　carrying　out　its　determination。　Illinois　has　provided　perhaps
the　most　democratic　method。　In　each　congressional　district；　the
voters；　at　the　regular　party　primaries；　choose　the　member　of　the
state　committee　for　the　district；　who　serves　for　a　term　of　two
years。　The　law　says　that　〃no　other　person　or　persons　whomsoever〃
than　those　so　chosen　by　the　voters　shall　serve　on　the　committee；
so　that　members　by　courtesy　or　by　proxy；　who　might　represent　the
boss；　are　apparently　shut　off。　The　law　stipulates　the　time　within
which　the　committee　must　meet　and　organize。　Under　this　plan；　if
the　ring　controls　the　committee；　the　fault　lies　wholly　with　the
majority　of　the　party；　it　is　a　self…imposed　thraldom。

Iowa　likewise　stipulates　that　the　Central　Committee　shall　be
composed　of　one　member　from　each　congressional　district。　But　the
members　are　chosen　in　a　state　convention；　organized　under　strict
and　minute　regulations　imposed　by　law。　It　permits　considerable
freedom　to　the　committee；　however；　stating　that　it　〃may　organize
at　pleasure　for　political　work　as　is　usual　and　customary　with
such　committees。〃

In　Wisconsin　another　plan　was　adopted　in　1907。　Here　the
candidates　for　the　various　state　offices　and　for　both　branches　of
the　legislature　and　the　senators　whose　terms　have　not　expired
meet　in　the　state　capital　at　noon　on　a　day　specified　by　law　and
elect　by　ballot　a　central　committee　consisting　of　at　least　two
members　from　each　congressional　district。　A　chairman　is　chosen　in
the　same　manner。

Most　States；　however；　leave　some　leeway　in　the　choice　of　the
state　committee；　permitting　their　election　usually　by　the　regular
primaries　but　controlling　their　action　in　many　details。　The
lesser　committeescounty；　city；　district；　judicial；　senatorial；
congressional；　and　othersare　even　more　rigorously　controlled　by
law。

So　the　issuing　of　the　party　platform；　the　principles　on　which　it
must　stand　or　fall；　has　been　touched　by　this　process　of
ossification。　Few　States　retain　the　state　convention　in　its
original　vigor。　In　all　States　where　primaries　are　held　for　state
nominations；　the　emasculated　and　subdued　convention　is　permitted
to　write　the　party　platform。　But　not　so　in　some　States。　Wisconsin
permits　the　candidates　and　the　hold…over　members　of　the　Senate；
assembled　according　to　law　in　a　state　meeting；　to　issue　the
platform。　In　other　States；　the　Central　Committee　and　the　various
candidates　for　state　office　form　a　party　council　and　frame　the
platform。　Oregon；　in　1901；　tried　a　novel　method　of　providing
platforms　by　referendum。　But　the　courts　declared　the　law
unconstitutional。　So　Oregon　now　permits　each　candidate　to　write
his　own　platform　in　not　over　one　hundred　words　and　file　it　with
his　nominating　petition；　and　to　present　a　statement　of　not　over
twelve　words　to　be　printed　on　the　ballot。

The　convention　system　provided　many　opportunities　for　the
manipulator　and　was　inherently　imperfect　for　nominating　more　than
one　or　two　candidates　for　office。　It　has　survived　as　the　method
of　nominating　candidates　for　President　of　the　United　States
because　it　is　adapted　to　the　wide　geographical　range　of　the
nation　and　because　in　the　national　convention　only　a　President
and　a　Vice…President　are　nominated。　In　state　and　county
conventions；　where　often　candidates　for　a　dozen　or　more　offices
are　to　be　nominated；　it　was　often　subject　to　demoralizing
bartering。

The　larger　the　number　of　nominations　to　be　made；　the　more
complete　was　the　jobbery；　and　this　was　the　death　warrant　of　the
local　convention。　These　evils　were　recognized　as　early　as　June
20；　1860；　when　the　Republican　county　convention　of　Crawford
County；　Pennsylvania；　adopted　the　following　resolutions：

〃Whereas；　in　nominating　candidates　for　the　several　county
offices；　it　clearly　is；　or　ought　to　be；　the　object　to　arrive　as
nearly　as　possible　at　the　wishes　of　the　majority；　or　at　least　a
plurality　of　the　Republican　voters；　and

Whereas　the　present　system　of　nominating　by　delegates；　who
virtually　represent　territory　rather　than　votes；　and　who　almost
necessarily　are　wholly　unacquainted　with　the　wishes　and　feelings
of　their　constituents　in　regard　to　various　candidates　for　office；
is　undemocratic；　because　the　people　have　no　voice　in　it；　and
objectionable；　because　men　are　often　placed　in　nomination　because
of　their　location　who　are　decidedly　unpopular；　even　in　their　own
districts；　and　because　it　affords　too　great　an　opportunity　for
scheming　and　designing　men　to　accomplish　their　own　purposes；
therefore

Resolved；　that　we　are　in　favor　of　submitting　nominations　directly
to　the　peoplethe　Republican　votersand　that　delegate
conventions　for　nominating　county　officers　be　abolished；　and　we
hereby　request　and　instruct　the　county　committee　to　issue　their
call　in　1861；　in　accordance　with　the　spirit　of　this　resolution。〃

Upon　the　basis　of　this　indictment　of　the　county　convention
system；　the　Republican　voters　of　Crawford　County；　a　rural
community；　whose　largest　town　is　Meadville；　the　county　seat；
proceeded　to　nominate　their　candidates　by　direct　vote；　under
rules　prepared　by　the　county　committee。　These　rules　have　been　but
slightly　changed。　The　informality　of　a　hat　or　open　table　drawer
has　been　replaced　by　an　official　ballotbox；　and　an　official
ballot　has　taken　the　place　of　the　tickets　furnished　by　each
candidate。

The　〃Crawford　County　plan；〃　as　it　was　generally　called；　was
adopted　by　various　localities　in　many　States。　In　1866　California
and　New　York　enacted　laws　to　protect　primaries　and　nominating
caucuses　from　fraud。　In　1871　Ohio　and　Pennsylvania　enacted
similar　laws；　followed　by　Missouri　in　1875　and　New　Jersey　in
1878。　By　1890　over　a　dozen　States　had　passed　laws　attempting　to
eliminate　the　grosser　frauds　attendant　upon　making　nominations。
In　many　instances　it　was　made　optional　with　the　party　whether　the
direct　plan　should　supersede　the　delegate　plan。　Only　in　certain
cities；　however；　was　the　primary　made　mandatory　in　these　States。
By　far　the　larger　areas　retained　the　convention。

There　is　noticeable　in　these　years　a　gradual　increase　in　the
amount　of　legislation　concerning　the　nominating　machinery
prescribing　the　days　and　hours　for　holding　elections　of
delegates；　the　size　of　the　polling…place；　the　nature　of　the
ballotbox；　the　poll…list；　who　might　participate　in　the　choice　of
delegates；　how　the　returns　were　to　be　made；　and　so　on。　By　the
time；　then；　that　the　Australian　ballot　came；　with　its　profound
changes；　nearly　all　the　States　had　attempted　to　remove　the
glaring　abuses　of　the　nominating　system；　and　several　of　them
officially　recognized　the　direct　primary。　The　State　was　reluctant
to　abolish　the　convention　system　entirely；　and　the　Crawford
County　plan　long　remained　merely　optional。　But　in　1901　Minnesota
enacted　a　state…wide；　mandatory　primary　law。　Mississippi　followed
in　1902；　Wisconsin　in　1903；　and　Oregon　in　1904。　This　movement　has
swept　the　country。

Few　States　retain　the　nominating　convention；　and　where　it　remains
it　is　shackled　by　legal　restrictions。　The　boss；　however；　has
devised　adequate　means　for　controlling　primaries；　and　a　return　to
a　modified　convention　system　is　being　earnestly　discussed　in　many
States　to　circumvent　the　further　ingenuity　of　the　boss。　A　further
step　towards　the　state　control　of　parties　was　taken　when　laws
began　to　busy　themselves　with　the　conduct　of　the　campaign。
Corrupt　Practices　Acts　began　to　assume　bulk　in　the　early
nineties；　to　limit　the　expenditure　of　candidates；　and　to
enumerate　the　objects　for　which　campaign　committees　might
legitimately　spend　money。　These　are　usually　personal　traveling
expenses　of　the　candidates；　rental　of　rooms　for　committees　and
halls　for　meetings；　payment　of　musicians　and　speakers　and　their
traveling　expenses；　printing　campaign　material；　postage　for
distribution　of　letters；　newspapers　and　printed　matter；　telephone
and　telegraph　charges；　political　advertising；　employing
challengers　at　the　polls；　necessary　clerk　hire；　and　conveyances
for　bringing　aged　or　infirm　voters　to　the　polls。　The　maximum
amount　that　can　be　spent　by　candidates　is　fixed；　and　they　are
required　to　make　under　oath　a　detailed　statement　of　their
expenses　in　both　primary　and　general　elections。　The　vario