the boss and the machine-第18章
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cliques and are being made the gift of the voters through
petitions and primaries; efficient reforms in the taxing and
budgetary machinery have been instituted; and the development of
the merit system in the civil service is creating a class of
municipal experts beyond the reach of political gangsters。
There have sprung up all sorts of collateral organizations to
help the officials: societies for municipal research; municipal
reference libraries; citizens' unions; municipal leagues; and
municipal parties。 These are further supplemented by
organizations which indirectly add to the momentum of practical;
enlightened municipal sentiment: boards of commerce; associations
of business and professional men of every variety; women's clubs;
men's clubs; children's clubs; recreation clubs; social clubs;
every one with its own peculiar vigilance upon some corner of the
city's affairs。 So every important city is guarded by a network
of voluntary organizations。
All these changes in city government; in municipal laws and
political mechanisms; and in the people's attitude toward their
cities; have tended to dignify municipal service。 The city job
has been lifted to a higher plane。 Lord Rosebery; the brilliant
chairman of the first London County Council; the governing body
of the world's largest city; said many years ago: 〃I wish that my
voice could extend to every municipality in the kingdom; and
impress upon every man; however high his position; however great
his wealth; however consummate his talents may be; the importance
and nobility of municipal work。〃 It is such a spirit as this that
has made the government of Glasgow a model of democratic
efficiency; and it is the beginnings of this spirit that the
municipal historian finds developing in the last twenty years of
American life。 It is indeed difficult to see how our cities can
slip back again into the clutches of bosses and rings and repeat
the shameful history of the last decades of the nineteenth
century。
CHAPTER VII。 LEGISLATIVE OMNIPOTENCE
The American people; when they wrote their first state
constitutions; were filled with a profound distrust of executive
authority; the offspring of their experience with the arbitrary
King George。 So they saw to it that the executive authority in
their own government was reduced to its lowest terms; and that
the legislative authority; which was presumed to represent the
people; was exalted to legal omnipotence。 In the original States;
the legislature appointed many of the judicial and administrative
officers; it was above the executive veto; it had political
supremacy; it determined the form of local governments and
divided the State into election precincts; it appointed the
delegates to the Continental Congress; towards which it displayed
the attitude of a sovereign。 It was altogether the most important
arm of the state government; in fact it virtually was the state
government。 The Federal Constitution created a government of
specified powers; reserving to the States all authority not
expressly given to the central government。 Congress can legislate
only on subjects permitted by the Constitution; on the other
hand; a state legislature can legislate on any subject not
expressly forbidden。 The state legislature possesses authority
over a far wider range of subjects than Congresssubjects;
moreover; which press much nearer to the daily activities of the
citizens; such as the wide realm of private law; personal
relations; local government; and property。
In the earlier days; men of first…class ability; such as
Alexander Hamilton; Samuel Adams; and James Madison; did not
disdain membership in the state legislatures。 But the development
of party spirit and machine politics brought with it a great
change。 Then came the legislative caucus; and party politics soon
reigned in every capital。 As the legislature was ruled by the
majority; the dominant party elected presiding officers;
designated committees; appointed subordinates; and controlled
lawmaking。 The party was therefore in a position to pay its
political debts and bestow upon its supporters valuable favors。
Further; as the legislature apportioned the various electoral
districts; the dominant party could; by means of the gerrymander;
entrench itself even in unfriendly localities。 And; to crown its
political power; it elected United States Senators。 But; as the
power of the party increased; unfortunately the personnel of the
legislature deteriorated。 Able men; as a rule; shunned a service
that not only took them from their private affairs for a number
of months; but also involved them in partizan rivalries and
trickeries。 Gradually the people came to lose confidence in the
legislative body and to put their trust more in the Executive or
else reserved governmental powers to themselves。 It was about
1835 that the decline of the legislature's powers set in; when
new state constitutions began to clip its prerogatives; one after
another。
The bulky constitutions now adopted by most of the States are
eloquent testimony to the complete collapse of the legislature as
an administrative body and to the people's general distrust of
their chosen representatives。 The initiative; referendum; recall;
and the withholding of important subjects from the legislature's
power; are among the devices intended to free the people from the
machinations of their wilful representatives。
Now; most of the evils which these heroic measures have sought to
remedy can be traced directly to the partizan ownership of the
state legislature。 The boss controlling the members of the
legislature could not only dole out his favors to the privilege
seekers; he could assuage the greed of the municipal ring; and
could; to a lesser degree; command federal patronage by an
entente cordiale with congressmen and senators; and through his
power in presidential conventions and elections he had a direct
connection with the presidential office itself。
It was in the days before the legislature was prohibited from
granting; by special act; franchises and charters; when banks;
turnpike companies; railroads; and all sorts of corporations came
asking for charters; that the figure of the lobbyist first
appeared。 He acted as a middleman between the seeker and the
giver。 The preeminent figure of this type in state and
legislative politics for several decades preceding the Civil War
was Thurlow Weed of New York。 As an influencer of legislatures;
he stands easily first in ability and achievement。 His great
personal attractions won him willing followers whom he knew how
to use。 He was party manager; as well as lobbyist and boss in a
real sense long before that term was coined。 His capacity for
politics amounted to genius。 He never sought office; and his
memory has been left singularly free from taint。 He became the
editor of the Albany Journal and made it the leading Whig
〃up…state〃 paper。 His friend Seward; whom he had lifted into the
Governor's chair; passed on to the United States Senate; and when
Horace Greeley with the New York Tribune joined their forces;
this potent triumvirate ruled the Empire State。 Greeley was its
spokesman; Seward its leader; but Weed was its designer。 From his
room No。 11 in the old Astor House; he beckoned to forces that
made or unmade presidents; governors; ambassadors; congressmen;
judges; and legislators。
With the tremendous increase of business after the Civil War; New
York City became the central office of the nation's business; and
many of the interests centered there found it wise to have
permanent representatives at Albany to scrutinize every bill that
even remotely touched their welfare; to promote legislation that
was frankly in their favor; and to prevent 〃strikes〃the bills
designed for blackmail。 After a time; however; the number of
〃strikes〃 decreased; as well as the number of lobbyists attending
the session。 The corporate interests had learned efficiency。
Instead of dealing with legislators individually; they arranged
with the boss the price of peace or of desirable legislation。 The
boss transmitted his wishes to his puppets。 This form of
government depends upon a machine that con