the origins of contemporary france-1-第84章

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of　it　the　fulfillment　of　any　engagement。　　…　　It　is　useless　to　raise　the

objection　that；　according　to　this；　every　man　of　spirit　or　of　culture

will　decline　our　offices；　and　that　our　chiefs　will　bear　the　character

of　lackeys。　　We　will　not　leave　them　the　freedom　of　accepting　or

declining　office；　we　impose　it　on　them　authoritatively。　　〃In　every　true

democracy　the　magistrature　is　not　an　advantage　but　an　onerous　burden；

not　to　be　assigned　to　one　more　than　to　another。〃　We　can　lay　hands　on

our　magistrates；　take　them　by　the　collar　and　set　them　on　their　benches

in　spite　of　themselves。　　By　fair　means　or　foul　they　are　the　working

subjects　（corvéables）　of　the　State；　in　a　lower　condition　than　a　valet

or　a　mechanic；　since　the　mechanic　does　his　work　according　to

acceptable　conditions；　and　the　discharged　valet　can　claim　his　eight

days'　notice　to　quit。　　As　soon　as　the　government　throws　off　this　humble

attitude　it　usurps；　while　constitutions　are　to　proclaim　that；　in　such

an　event；　insurrection　is　not　only　the　most　sacred　right　but　the　most

imperative　duty。　　…　The　new　theory　is　now　put　into　practice；　and　the

dogma　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people；　interpreted　by　the　crowd；　is

to　result　in　a　complete　anarchy；　up　to　the　moment　when；　interpreted　by

its　leaders；　it　produces　perfect　despotism。



IV。　　BIRTH　OF　SOCIALIST　THEORY；　ITS　TWO　SIDES。



The　second　result。　　…　The　new　theory　leads　to　despotism。　　…

Precedents　for　this　theory。　　…　Administrative　centralization。　　…　The

Utopia　of　the　Economists。　　…　Invalidity　of　preceding　rights。　　…

Collateral　associations　not　tolerated。　　…　Complete　alienation　of　the

individual　from　the　community。　　…　Rights　of　the　State　in　relation　to

property；　education　and　religion。　　…　The　State　a　Spartan　convent。



　　For　this　theory　has　two　aspects；　whereas　one　side　leads　towards

the　perpetual　demolition　of　government；　the　other　results　in　the

unlimited　dictatorship　of　the　State。　　The　new　social　contract　is　not　a

historic　pact；　like　the　English　Declaration　of　Rights　in　1688；　or　the

Dutch　federation　in　1579；　entered　into　by　actual　and　living

individuals；　admitting　acquired　situations；　groups　already　formed；

established　positions；　and　drawn　up　to　recognize；　define；　guarantee

and　complete　anterior　rights。　　Antecedent　to　the　social　contract　no

veritable　right　exist；　for　veritable　rights　are　born　solely　out　of　the

social　contract；　the　only　valid　one；　since　it　is　the　only　one　agreed

upon　between　beings　perfectly　equal　and　perfectly　free；　so　many

abstract　creatures；　so　many　species　of　mathematical　units；　all　of　the

same　value；　all　playing　the　same　part　and　whose　inequality　or

constraint　never　disturbs　the　common　understanding。　　Hence　at　the

moment　of　its　completion；　all　other　facts　are　nullified。　　Property；

family；　church；　no　ancient　institution　may　invoke　any　right　against

the　new　State。　　The　area　on　which　it　is　built　up　must　be　considered

vacant；　if　old　structures　are　partly　allowed　to　remain　it　is　only　in

its　name　and　for　its　benefit；　to　be　enclosed　within　its　barriers　and

appropriated　to　its　use；　the　entire　soil　of　humanity　is　its　property。

On　the　other　hand　it　is　not；　according　to　the　American　doctrine；　an

association　for　mutual　protection；　a　society　like　other　societies；

circumscribed　in　its　purpose；　restricted　to　its　office；　limited　in　its

powers；　and　by　which　individuals　reserving　to　themselves　the　better

portion　of　their　property　and　persons；　assess　each　other　for　the

maintenance　of　an　army；　a　police；　tribunals；　highways；　schools；　in

short；　the　major　instruments　of　public　safety　and　utility；　at　the　same

time　withholding　the　remainder　of　local；　general；　spiritual　and

material　services　in　favor　of　private　initiative　and　of　spontaneous

associations　that　may　arise　as　occasion　or　necessity　calls　for　them。

Our　State　is　not　to　be　a　simple　utilitarian　machine；　a　convenient；

handy　implement；　of　which　the　workman　avails　himself　without

abandoning　the　free　use　of　his　hand；　or　the　simultaneous　use　of　other

implements。　　Being　elder　born；　the　only　son　and　sole　representative　of

Reason　it　must；　to　ensure　its　sway；　leave　nothing　beyond　its　grasp。　　…

In　this　respect　the　old　régime　paves　the　way　for　the　new　one；　while

the　established　system　inclines　minds　beforehand　to　the　budding

theory。　　Through　administrative　centralization　the　State　already；　for　a

long　time；　has　its　hands　everywhere。＇19＇



〃You　must　know；〃　says　Law　to　the　Marquis　d'Argenson；　〃that　the

kingdom　of　France　is　governed　by　thirty　intendants。　　You　have　neither

parliaments；　assemblies　or　governors；　simply　thirty　masters　of

requests；　provincial　clerks；　on　whom　depends　the　happiness　or　misery；

the　fruitfulness　or　sterility　of　these　provinces。〃



The　king；　in　fact；　sovereign；　father；　and　universal　guardian；

manages　local　affairs　through　his　delegates；　and　intervenes　in　private

affairs　through　his　favors　or　lettres…de…cachet（royal　orders　of

imprisonment）。　　Such　an　example　and　such　a　course　followed　for　fifty

years　excites　the　imagination。　　No　other　instrument　is　more　useful　for

carrying　large　reforms　out　at　one　time。　　Hence；　far　from　restricting

the　central　power　the　economists　are　desirous　of　extending　its　action。

Instead　of　setting　up　new　dikes　against　it　they　interest　themselves

only　in　destroying　what　is　left　of　the　old　dikes　still　interfering

with　it。　　〃The　system　of　counter…forces　in　a　government；〃　says　Quesnay

and　his　disciples；　〃is　a　fatal　idea　。　　。　　。　　The　speculations　on　which

the　system　of　counter…balance　is　founded　are　chimerical　。　　。　　。　　。　　Let

the　government　have　a　full　comprehension　of　its　duties　and　be　left

free。　　。　　。　　The　State　must　govern　according　to　the　essential　laws　of

order；　and　in　this　case　unlimited　power　is　requisite。〃　On　the　approach

of　the　Revolution　the　same　doctrine　reappears；　except　in　the

substitution　of　one　term　for　another　term。　　In　the　place　of　the

sovereignty　of　the　king　the　〃Contrat　social〃　substitutes　the

sovereignty　of　the　people。　　The　latter；　however；　is　much　more　absolute

than　the　former；　and；　in　the　democratic　convent　which　Rousseau

constructs；　on　Spartan　and　Roman　model；　the　individual　is　nothing　and

the　State　everything。



In　effect；　〃the　clauses　of　the　social　contract　reduce　themselves　to

one；　namely；　the　total　transfer　of　each　associate　with　all　his　rights

to　the　community。〃＇20＇　Every　one　surrenders　himself　entirely；　〃just　as

he　stands；　he　and　all　his　forces；　of　which　his　property　forms　a

portion。〃　There　is　no　exception　nor　reservation；　whatever　he　may　have

been　previously　and　whatever　may　have　belonged　to　him　is　no　longer　his

own。　　Henceforth　whatever　he　becomes　or　whatever　he　may　possess

devolves　on　him　only　through　the　delegation　of　the　social　body；　the

universal　proprietor　and　absolute　master。　　All　rights　must　be　vested　in

the　State　and　none　in　the　individual；　otherwise　there　would　be

litigation　between　them；　and；　〃as　there　is　no　common　superior　to

decide　between　them〃　their　litigation　would　never　end。　　One　the

contrary；　through　the　complete　donation　which　each　one　makes　of

himself；　〃the　unity　is　as　perfect　as　possible；〃　having　renounced

himself　〃he　has　no　further　claim　to　make。〃



This　being　admitted　let　us　trace　the　consequences。　　…



In　the　first　place；　I　enjoy　my　property　only　through　tolerance　and

at　second…hand；　for；　according　to　the　social　contract；　I　have

surrendered　it；＇21＇　〃it　now　forms　a　portion　of　the　national　estate；〃

If　I　retain　the　use　of　its　for　the　time　being　it　is　through　a

concession　of　the　State　which　makes　me　a　〃depositary〃　of　it。　　And　this

favor　must　not　be　considered　as　restitution。　　〃Far　from　accepting　the

property　of　individuals　society　despoils　them　of　it；　simply　converting

the　usurpation　into　a　veritable　right；　the　enjoyment　of　it　into

proprietorship。〃　Previous　to　the　social　contract　I　was　possessor　not

by　right　but　in　fact　and　even　unjustly　if　I　had　large　possessions；

for；　〃every　man　has　naturally　a　right　to　whatever　he　needs；〃　and　I

have　robbed　othe