the origins of contemporary france-1-第62章

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ancient　Persians；　we　find　that　all　contain　religions；　moral　theories；

philosophies　and　institutions；　as　worthy　of　study　as　our　own。　　Three　of

these　codes；　those　of　India；　China　and　the　Muslims；　still　at　the

present　time　govern　countries　as　vast　as　our　Europe；　and　nations　of

equal　importance。　　We　must　not；　like　Bossuet；　〃overlook　the　universe　in

a　universal　history；〃　and　subordinate　humanity　to　a　small　population

confined　to　a　desolate　region　around　the　Dead　Sea。＇19＇　Human　history

is　a　thing　of　natural　growth　like　the　rest；　its　direction　is　due　to

its　own　elements；　no　external　force　guides　it；　but　the　inward　forces

that　create　it；　it　is　not　tending　to　any　prescribed　end　but　developing

a　result。　　And　the　chief　result　is　the　progress　of　the　human　mind。

〃Amidst　so　many　ravages　and　so　much　destruction；　we　see　a　love　of

order　secretly　animating　the　human　species；　and　forestalling　its　utter

ruin。　　It　is　one　of　the　springs　of　nature　ever　recovering　its　energy；

it　is　the　source　of　the　formation　of　the　codes　of　nations；　it　causes

the　law　and　the　ministers　of　the　law　to　be　respected　in　Tinquin　and　in

the　islands　of　Formosa　as　well　as　in　Rome。〃　Man　thus　possesses；　said

Voltaire；　a　〃principle　of　Reason；〃　namely；　a　〃an　instinct　for

engineering〃　suggesting　to　him　useful　implements；＇20＇　also　an　instinct

of　right　suggesting　to　him　his　moral　conceptions。　　These　two　instincts

form　a　part　of　his　makeup；　he　has　them　from　his　birth；　〃as　birds　have

their　feathers；　and　bears　their　hair。　　Hence　he　is　perfectible　through

nature；　and　merely　conforms　to　nature　in　improving　his　mind　and　in

bettering　his　condition。　　Extend　the　idea　farther　along　with　Turgot　and

Condorcet；＇21＇　and；　with　all　its　exaggerations；　we　see　arising；　before

the　end　of　the　century；　our　modern　theory　of　progress；　that　which

founds　all　our　aspirations　on　the　boundless　advance　of　the　sciences；

on　the　increase　of　comforts　which　their　applied　discoveries　constantly

bring　to　the　human　condition；　and　on　the　increase　of　good　sense　which

their　discoveries；　popularized；　slowly　deposit　in　the　human　brain。



A　second　principle　has　to　be　established　to　complete　the

foundations　of　history。　　Discovered　by　Montesquieu　it　still　to…day

serves　as　a　constructive　support；　and；　if　we　resume　the　work；　as　if　on

the　substructure　of　the　master's　edifice；　it　is　simply　owing　to

accumulated　erudition　placing　at　our　disposal　more　substantial　and

more　abundant　materials。　　In　human　society　all　parts　are

interdependent；　no　modification　of　one　can　take　place　without

effecting　proportionate　changes　in　the　others。　　Institutions；　laws　and

customs　are　not　mingled　together；　as　in　a　heap；　through　chance　or

caprice；　but　connected　one　with　the　other　through　convenience　or

necessity；　as　in　a　harmony。＇22＇　According　as　authority　is　in　all；　in

several　or　in　one　hand；　according　as　the　sovereign　admits　or　rejects

laws　superior　to　himself；　with　intermediary　powers　below　him；

everything　changes　or　tends　to　differ　in　meaning　and　in　importance：



*　public　intelligence；



*　education；



*　the　form　of　judgments；



*　the　nature　and　order　of　penalties；



*　the　condition　of　women；



*　military　organization



*　and　the　nature　and　the　extent　of　taxation。



A　multitude　of　subordinate　wheels　depend　on　the　great　central

wheel。　　For　if　the　clock　runs；　it　is　owing　to　the　harmony　of　its

various　parts；　from　which　it　follows　that；　on　this　harmony　ceasing；

the　clock　gets　out　of　order。　　But；　besides　the　principal　spring；　there

are　others　which；　acting　on　or　in　combination　with　it；　give　to　each

clock　a　special　character　and　a　peculiar　movement。　　Such；　in　the　first

place；　is　climate；　that　is　to　say；　the　degree　of　heat　or　cold；

humidity　or　dryness；　with　its　infinite　effects　on　man's　physical　and

moral　attributes；　followed　by　its　influence　on　political；　civil　and

domestic　servitude　or　freedom。　　Likewise　the　soil；　according　to　its

fertility；　its　position　and　its　extent。　　Likewise　the　physical　régime；

according　as　a　people　is　composed　of　hunters；　shepherds　or

agriculturists。　　Likewise　the　fecundity　of　the　race；　and　the　consequent

slow　or　rapid　increase　of　population；　and　also　the　excess　in　number；

now　of　males　and　now　of　females。　　And　finally；　likewise；　are　national

character　and　religion。　　…　　All　these　causes；　each　added　to　the　other；

or　each　limited　by　the　other；　contribute　together　to　form　a　total

result；　namely　society。　　Simple　or　complex；　stable　or　unstable；

barbarous　or　civilized；　this　society　contains　within　itself　its

explanations　of　its　being。　　Strange　as　a　social　structure　may　be；　it

can　be　explained；　also　its　institutions；　however　contradictory。

Neither　prosperity；　nor　decline；　nor　despotism；　nor　freedom；　is　the

result　of　a　throw　of　the　dice；　of　luck　or　an　unexpected　turn　of　events

caused　by　rash　men。　　They　are　conditions　we　must　live　with。　　In　any

event；　it　is　useful　to　understand　them；　either　to　improve　our

situation　or　bear　it　patiently；　sometimes　to　carry　out　appropriate

reforms；　sometimes　to　renounce　impracticable　reforms；　now　to　assume

the　authority　necessary　for　success；　and　now　the　prudence　making　us

abstain。



IV。　　THE　NEW　PSYCHOLOGY。



The　transformation　of　psychology。　　…　Condillac。　　…　The　theory　of

sensation　and　of　signs。



　　We　now　reach　the　core　of　moral　science；　the　human　being　in

general。　　The　natural　history　of　the　mind　must　be　dealt　with；　and　this

must　be　done　as　we　have　done　the　others；　by　discarding　all　prejudice

and　adhering　to　facts；　taking　analogy　for　our　guide；　beginning　with

origins　and　following；　step　by　step；　the　development　by　which　the

infant；　the　savage；　the　uncultivated　primitive　man；　is　converted　into

the　rational　and　cultivated　man。　　Let　us　consider　life　at　the　outset；

the　animal　at　the　lowest　degree　on　the　scale；　the　human　being　as　soon

as　it　is　born。　　The　first　thing　we　find　is　perception；　agreeable　or

disagreeable；　and　next　a　want；　propensity　or　desire；　and　therefore　at

last；　by　means　of　a　physiological　mechanism；　voluntary　or　involuntary

movements；　more　or　less　accurate　and　more　or　less　appropriate　and

coordinated。　　And　this　elementary　fact　is　not　merely　primitive；　it　is；

again；　constant　and　universal；　since　we　encounter　it　at　each　moment　of

each　life；　and　in　the　most　complicated　as　well　as　in　the　simplest。　　Let

us　accordingly　ascertain　whether　it　is　not　the　thread　with　which　all

our　mental　cloth　is　woven；　and　whether　its　spontaneous　unfolding；　and

the　knotting　of　mesh　after　mesh；　is　not　finally　to　produce　the　entire

network　of　our　thought　and　passion。　　…　　Condillac　（1715…1780）provides

us　here　with　an　incomparable　clarity　and　precision　with　the　answers　to

all　our　questions；　which；　however　the　revival　of　theological　prejudice

and　German　metaphysics　was　to　bring　into　discredit　in　the　beginning　of

the　nineteenth　century；　but　which　fresh　observation；　the　establishment

of　mental　pathology；　and　dissection　have　now　（in　1875）　brought　back；

justified　and　completed。＇23＇　Locke　had　already　stated　that　our　ideas

all　originate　in　outward　or　inward　experience。　　Condillac　shows　further

that　the　actual　elements　of　perception；　memory；　idea；　imagination；

judgment；　reasoning；　knowledge　are　sensations；　properly　so　called；　or

revived　sensations；　our　loftiest　ideas　are　derived　from　no　other

material；　for　they　can　be　reduced　to　signs　which　are　themselves

sensations　of　a　certain　kind。　　Sensations　accordingly　form　the

substance　of　human　or　of　animal　intelligence；　but　the　former

infinitely　surpasses　the　latter　in　this；　that；　through　the　creation　of

signs；　it　succeeds　in　isolating；　abstracting　and　noting　fragments　of

sensations；　that　is　to　say；　in　forming；　combining　and　employing

general　conceptions。　　…　　This　being　granted；　we　are　able　to　verify　all

our　ideas；　for；　through　reflection；　we　can　revive　and　reconstruct　the

ideas　we　had　formed　without　any　reflection。　　No　abstract　definitions

exist　at　the　outset；　abstraction　is　ulterior　and　derivative；　foremost

in　eac