the origins of contemporary france-1-第115章

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to　a　lower　level；　and　the　pool　be　drawn　off　through　some　adequate

outlet。　　Thus　far　the　poor　man　catches　breath　only　at　intervals；

running　the　risk　of　drowning　at　every　moment。





II。　　THE　PEASANTS。



The　condition　of　the　peasant　during　the　last　thirty　years　of　the

Ancient　Regime。　　…　His　precarious　subsistence。　　…　State　of　agriculture。

…　Uncultivated　farms。　　…　Poor　cultivation。　　…　Inadequate　wages。　　…　Lack

of　comforts。



Between　1750　and　1760；＇25＇　the　idlers　who　eat　suppers　begin　to

regard　with　compassion　and　alarm　the　laborers　who　go　without　dinners。

Why　are　the　latter　so　impoverished；　and　by　what　misfortune；　on　a　soil

as　rich　as　that　of　France；　do　those　lack　bread　who　grow　the　grain？　In

the　first　place　many　farms　remain　uncultivated；　and；　what　is　worse；

many　are　deserted。　　According　to　the　best　observers　〃one…quarter　of　the

soil　is　absolutely　lying　waste。　　。　　。　　。　　Hundreds　and　hundreds　of　arpents

of　heath　and　moor　form　extensive　deserts。〃＇26＇　　Let　a　person　traverse

Anjou；　Maine；　Brittany；　Poitou；　Limousin；　la　Marche；　Berry；　Nivernais；

Bourbonnais　and　Auvergne；　and　he　finds　one…half　of　these　provinces　in

heaths；　forming　immense　plains；　all　of　which　might　be　cultivated。〃　In

Touraine；　in　Poitou　and　in　Berry　they　form　solitary　expanses　of　30；000

arpents。　　In　one　canton　alone；　near　Preuilly；　40；000　arpents　of　good

soil　consist　of　heath。　　The　agricultural　society　of　Rennes　declares

that　two…thirds　of　Brittany　is　lying　waste。　　This　is　not　sterility　but

decadence。　　The　régime　invented　by　Louis　XIV　has　produced　its　effect；

the　soil　for　a　century　past　has　been　reverting　to　a　wild　state。



　〃We　see　only　abandoned　and　ruinous　chateaux；　the　principal　towns

of　the　fiefs；　in　which　the　nobility　formerly　lived　at　their　ease；　are

all　now　occupied　by　poor　tenant　herdsmen　whose　scanty　labor　hardly

suffices　for　their　subsistence；　and　a　remnant　of　tax　ready　to

disappear　through　the　ruin　of　the　proprietors　and　the　desertion　of　the

settlers。〃



　In　the　election　district　of　Confolens　a　piece　of　property　rented

for　2；956　livres　in　1665；　brings　in　only　900　livres　in　1747。　　On　the

confines　of　la　Marche　and　of　Berry　a　domain　which；　in　166o；　honorably

supported　two　seigniorial　families　is　now　simply　a　small　unproductive

tenant…farm；　〃the　traces　of　the　furrows　once　made　by　the　plow…iron

being　still　visible　on　the　surrounding　heaths。〃　Sologne；　once

flourishing；＇27＇　becomes　a　marsh　and　a　forest；　a　hundred　years　earlier

it　produced　three　times　the　quantity　of　grain；　two…thirds　of　its　mills

are　gone；　not　a　vestige　of　its　vineyards　remains；　〃grapes　have　given

way　to　the　heath。〃　Thus　abandoned　by　the　spade　and　the　plow；　a　vast

portion　of　the　soil　ceases　to　feed　man；　while　the　rest；　poorly

cultivated；　scarcely　provides　the　simplest　necessities＇28＇。



In　the　first　place；　on　the　failure　of　a　crop；　this　portion　remains

untilled；　its　occupant　is　too　poor　to　purchase　seed；　the　intendant　is

often　obliged　to　distribute　seed；　without　which　the　disaster　of　the

current　year　would　be　followed　by　sterility　the　following　year＇29＇。

Every　calamity；　accordingly；　in　these　days　affects　the　future　as　well

as　the　present；　during　the　two　years　of　1784　and　1785；　around

Toulouse；　the　drought　having　caused　the　loss　of　all　draft　animals；

many　of　the　cultivators　are　obliged　to　let　their　fields　lie　fallow。　　In

the　second　place；　cultivation；　when　it　does　take　place；　is　carried　on

according　to　medieval　modes。　　Arthur　Young；　in　1789；　considers　that

French　agriculture　has　not　progressed　beyond　that　of　the　tenth

century＇30＇。　　Except　in　Flanders　and　on　the　plains　of　Alsace；　the

fields　lie　fallow　one　year　out　of　three；　and　oftentimes　one　year　out

of　two。　　The　implements　are　poor；　there　are　no　plows　made　of　iron；　in

many　places　the　plow　of　Virgil's　time　is　still　in　use。　　Cart…axles　and

wheel…tires　are　made　of　wood；　while　a　harrow　often　consists　of　the

trestle　of　a　cart。　　There　are　few　animals　and　but　little　manure；　the

capital　bestowed　on　cultivation　is　three　times　less　than　that　of　the

present　day。　　The　yield　is　slight：　〃our　ordinary　farms；〃　says　a　good

observer；　〃taking　one　with　another　return　about　six　times　the　seed

sown。〃＇31＇　　In　1778；　on　the　rich　soil　around　Toulouse；　wheat　returns

about　five　for　one；　while　at　the　present　day　it　yields　eight　to　one

and　more。　　Arthur　Young　estimates　that；　in　his　day；　the　English　acre

produces　twenty…eight　bushels　of　grain；　and　the　French　acre　eighteen

bushels；　and　that　the　value　of　the　total　product　of　the　same　area　for

a　given　length　of　time　is　thirty…six　pounds　sterling　in　England　and

only　twenty…five　in　France。　　As　the　parish　roads　are　frightful；　and

transportation　often　impracticable；　it　is　clear　that；　in　remote

cantons；　where　poor　soil　yields　scarcely　three　times　the　seed　sown；

food　is　not　always　obtainable。　　How　do　they　manage　to　live　until　the

next　crop？　This　is　the　question　always　under　consideration　previous

to；　and　during；　the　Revolution。　　I　find；　in　manuscript　correspondence；

the　syndics　and　mayors　of　villages　estimating　the　quantities　for　local

subsistence　at　so　many　bushels　in　the　granaries；　so　many　sheaves　in

the　barns；　so　many　mouths　to　be　filled；　so　many　days　to　wait　until



the　August　wheat　comes　in；　and　concluding　on　short　supplies　for

two；　three　and　four　months。　　Such　a　state　of　inter…communication　and　of

agriculture　condemns　a　country　to　periodical　famines；　and　I　venture　to

state　that；　alongside　of　the　small…pox　which　out　of　eight　deaths

causes　one；　another　endemic　disease　exists；　as　prevalent　and　as

destructive；　and　this　disease　is　starvation。



We　can　easily　imagine　that　it　is　the　common　people；　and　especially

the　peasants　who　suffers。　　An　increase　of　the　price　of　bread　prevents

him　from　getting　any；　and　even　without　that　increase；　he　obtains　it

with　difficulty。　　Wheat　bread　cost；　as　today；　three　sous　per　pound；＇32＇

but　as　the　average　day's　work　brought　only　nineteen　sous　instead　of

forty；　the　day…laborer；　working　the　same　time；　could　buy　only　the　half

of　a　loaf　instead　of　a　full　loaf＇33＇。　　Taking　everything　into　account；

and　wages　being　estimated　according　to　the　price　of　grain；　we　find

that　the　husbandman's　manual　labor　then　procured　him　959　litres　of

wheat；　while　nowadays　it　gives　him　1；851　litres；　his　well…being；

accordingly；　has　advanced　ninety…three　per　cent。；　which　suffices　to

show　to　what　extent　his　predecessors　suffered　privations。　　And　these

privations　are　peculiar　to　France。　　Through　analogous　observations　and

estimates　Arthur　Young　shows　that　in　France　those　who　lived　on　field

labor；　and　they　constituted　the　great　majority；　are　seventy…six　per

cent。　　less　comfortable　than　the　same　laborers　in　England；　while　they

are　seventy…six　per　cent。　　less　well　fed　and　well　clothed；　besides

being　worse　treated　in　sickness　and　in　health。　　The　result　is　that　in

seven…eighths　of　the　kingdom；　there　are　no　farmers；　but　simply

métayers　（a　kind　of　poor　tenants）＇34＇。　　The　peasant　is　too　poor　to

undertake　cultivation　on　his　own　account；　possessing　no　agricultural

capital＇35＇。　　〃The　proprietor；　desirous　of　improving　his　land；　finds　no

one　to　cultivate　it　but　miserable　creatures　possessing　only　a　pair　of

hands；　he　is　obliged　to　advance　everything　for　its　cultivation　at　his

own　expense；　animals；　implements　and　seed；　and　even　to　advance　the

wherewithal　to　this　tenant　to　feed　him　until　the　first　crop　comes　in。〃

…　　〃At　Vatan；　for　example；　in　Berry；　the　tenants；　almost　every　year；

borrow　bread　of　the　proprietor　in　order　to　await　the　harvesting。〃　　…

〃Very　rarely　is　one　found　who　is　not　indebted　to　his　master　at　least

one　hundred　livres　a　year。〃



Frequently　the　latter　proposes　to　abandon　the　entire　crop　to　them

on　condition　that　they　demand　nothing　of　him　during　the　year；　〃these

miserable　creatures〃　have　refused；　left　to　themselves；　they　would　not

be　sure　of　keeping　themselves　alive。　　…　　In　Limousin　and　in　Angoumois

their　poverty　is　so　great＇36＇　〃that；　deducting　the　taxes　to　which　they