the age of invention-第17章

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improved　their　models　and　materials；　and　at　the　present　day　only　a　negligible　fraction　of　the　people　of　the　United　States　wear　clothes　made　to　their　order。

The　sewing　machine　today　does　many　things　besides　sewing　a　seam。　There　are　attachments　which　make　buttonholes；　darn；　embroider；　make　ruffles　or　hems；　and　dozens　of　other　things。　There　are　special　machines　for　every　trade；　some　of　which　deal　successfully　with　refractory　materials。

The　Singer　machine　of　1851　was　strong　enough　to　sew　leather　and　was　almost　at　once　adopted　by　the　shoemakers。　These　craftsmen　flourished　chiefly　in　Massachusetts；　and　they　had　traditions　reaching　back　at　least　to　Philip　Kertland；　who　came　to　Lynn　in　1636　and　taught　many　apprentices。　Even　in　the　early　days　before　machinery；　division　of　labor　was　the　rule　in　the　shops　of　Massachusetts。　One　workman　cut　the　leather；　often　tanned　on　the　premises；　another　sewed　the　uppers　together；　while　another　sewed　on　the　soles。　Wooden　pegs　were　invented　in　1811　and　came　into　common　use　about　1815　for　the　cheaper　grades　of　shoes：　Soon　the　practice　of　sending　out　the　uppers　to　be　done　by　women　in　their　own　homes　became　common。　These　women　were　wretchedly　paid；　and　when　the　sewing　machine　came　to　do　the　work　better　than　it　could　be　done　by　hand；　the　practice　of　〃putting　out〃　work　gradually　declined。

That　variation　of　the　sewing　machine　which　was　to　do　the　more　difficult　work　of　sewing　the　sole　to　the　upper　was　the　invention　of　a　mere　boy；　Lyman　R。　Blake。　The　first　model；　completed　in　1858；　was　imperfect；　but　Blake　was　able　to　interest　Gordon　McKay；　of　Boston；　and　three　years　of　patient　experimentation　and　large　expenditure　followed。　The　McKay　sole…sewing　machine；　which　they　produced；　came　into　use；　and　for　twenty…one　years　was　used　almost　universally　both　in　the　United　States　and　Great　Britain。　But　this；　like　all　the　other　useful　inventions；　was　in　time　enlarged　and　greatly　improved；　and　hundreds　of　other　inventions　have　been　made　in　the　shoe　industry。　There　are　machines　to　split　leather；　to　make　the　thickness　absolutely　uniform；　to　sew　the　uppers；　to　insert　eyelets；　to　cut　out　heel　tops；　and　many　more。　In　fact；　division　of　labor　has　been　carried　farther　in　the　making　of　shoes　than　in　most　industries；　for　there　are　said　to　be　about　three　hundred　separate　operations　in　making　a　pair　of　shoes。

From　small　beginnings　great　industries　have　grown。　It　is　a　far　cry　from　the　slow；　clumsy　machine　of　Elias　Howe；　less　than　three…quarters　of　a　century　ago；　to　the　great　factories　of　today；　filled　with　special　models；　run　at　terrific　speed　by　electric　current；　and　performing　tasks　which　would　seem　to　require　more　than　human　intelligence　and　skill。



CHAPTER　V。　THE　AGRICULTURAL　REVOLUTION

The　Census　of　1920　shows　that　hardly　thirty　per　cent　of　the　people　are　today　engaged　in　agriculture；　the　basic　industry　of　the　United　States；　as　compared　with　perhaps　ninety　per　cent　when　the　nation　began。　Yet　American　farmers；　though　constantly　diminishing　in　proportion　to　the　whole　population；　have　always　been；　and　still　are；　able　to　feed　themselves　and　all　their　fellow　Americans　and　a　large　part　of　the　outside　world　as　well。　They　bring　forth　also　not　merely　foodstuffs；　but　vast　quantities　of　raw　material　for　manufacture；　such　as　cotton；　wool；　and　hides。　This　immense　productivity　is　due　to　the　use　of　farm　machinery　on　a　scale　seen　nowhere　else　in　the　world。　There　is　still；　and　always　will　be；　a　good　deal　of　hard　labor　on　the　farm。　But　invention　has　reduced　the　labor　and　has　made　possible　the　carrying　on　of　this　vast　industry　by　a　relatively　small　number　of　hands。

The　farmers　of　Washington's　day　had　no　better　tools　than　had　the　farmers　of　Julius　Caesar's　day；　in　fact；　the　Roman　ploughs　were　probably　superior　to　those　in　general　use　in　America　eighteen　centuries　later。　〃The　machinery　of　production；〃　says　Henry　Adams；　〃showed　no　radical　difference　from　that　familiar　in　ages　long　past。　The　Saxon　farmer　of　the　eighth　century　enjoyed　most　of　the　comforts　known　to　Saxon　farmers　of　the　eighteenth。〃*　One　type　of　plough　in　the　United　States　was　little　more　than　a　crooked　stick　with　an　iron　point　attached；　sometimes　with　rawhide；　which　simply　scratched　the　ground。　Ploughs　of　this　sort　were　in　use　in　Illinois　as　late　as　1812。　There　were　a　few　ploughs　designed　to　turn　a　furrow；　often　simply　heavy　chunks　of　tough　wood；　rudely　hewn　into　shape；　with　a　wrought…iron　point　clumsily　attached。　The　moldboard　was　rough　and　the　curves　of　no　two　were　alike。　Country　blacksmiths　made　ploughs　only　on　order　and　few　had　patterns。　Such　ploughs　could　turn　a　furrow　in　soft　ground　if　the　oxen　were　strong　enoughbut　the　friction　was　so　great　that　three　men　and　four　or　six　oxen　were　required　to　turn　a　furrow　where　the　sod　was　tough。

*　〃History　of　the　United　States〃；　vol。　I；　p。　16。


Thomas　Jefferson　had　worked　out　very　elaborately　the　proper　curves　of　the　moldboard；　and　several　models　had　been　constructed　for　him。　He　was；　however；　interested　in　too　many　things　ever　to　follow　any　one　to　the　end；　and　his　work　seems　to　have　had　little　publicity。　The　first　real　inventor　of　a　practicable　plough　was　Charles　Newbold；　of　Burlington　County；　New　Jersey；　to　whom　a　patent　for　a　cast…iron　plough　was　issued　in　June；　1797。　But　the　farmers　would　have　none　of　it。　They　said　it　〃poisoned　the　soil〃　and　fostered　the　growth　of　weeds。　One　David　Peacock　received　a　patent　in　1807；　and　two　others　later。　Newbold　sued　Peacock　for　infringement　and　recovered　damages。　Pieces　of　Newbold's　original　plough　are　in　the　museum　of　the　New　York　Agricultural　Society　at　Albany。

Another　inventor　of　ploughs　was　Jethro　Wood；　a　blacksmith　of　Scipio；　New　York；　who　received　two　patents；　one　in　1814　and　the　other　in　1819。　His　plough　was　of　cast　iron；　but　in　three　parts；　so　that　a　broken　part　might　be　renewed　without　purchasing　an　entire　plough。　This　principle　of　standardization　marked　a　great　advance。　The　farmers　by　this　time　were　forgetting　their　former　prejudices；　and　many　ploughs　were　sold。　Though　Wood's　original　patent　was　extended；　infringements　were　frequent；　and　he　is　said　to　have　spent　his　entire　property　in　prosecuting　them。

In　clay　soils　these　ploughs　did　not　work　well；　as　the　more　tenacious　soil　stuck　to　the　iron　moldboard　instead　of　curling　gracefully　away。　In　1833；　John　Lane；　a　Chicago　blacksmith；　faced　a　wooden　moldboard　with　an　old　steel　saw。　It　worked　like　magic；　and　other　blacksmiths　followed　suit　to　such　an　extent　that　the　demand　for　old　saws　became　brisk。　Then　came　John　Deere；　a　native　of　Vermont；　who　settled　first　in　Grand　Detour；　and　then　in　Moline；　Illinois。　Deere　made　wooden　ploughs　faced　with　steel；　like　other　blacksmiths；　but　was　not　satisfied　with　them　and　studied　and　experimented　to　find　the　best　curves　and　angles　for　a　plough　to　be　used　in　the　soils　around　him。　His　ploughs　were　much　in　demand；　and　his　need　for　steel　led　him　to　have　larger　and　larger　quantities　produced　for　him；　and　the　establishment　which　still　bears　his　name　grew　to　large　proportions。

Another　skilled　blacksmith；　William　Parlin；　at　Canton；　Illinois；　began　making　ploughs　about　1842；　which　he　loaded　upon　a　wagon　and　peddled　through　the　country。　Later　his　establishment　grew　large。　Another　John　Lane；　a　son　of　the　first；　patented　in　1868　a　〃soft…center〃　steel　plough。　The　hard　but　brittle　surface　was　backed　by　softer　and　more　tenacious　metal；　to　reduce　the　breakage。　The　same　year　James　Oliver；　a　Scotch　immigrant　who　had　settled　at　South　Bend；　Indiana；　received　a　patent　for　the　〃chilled　plough。〃　By　an　ingenious　method　the　wearing　surfaces　of　the　casting　were　cooled　more　quickly　than　the　back。　The　surfaces　which　came　in　contact　with　the　soil　had　a　hard；　glassy　surface；　while　the　body　of　the　plough　was　of　tough　iron。　From　small　beginnings　Oliver's　establishment　grew　great；　and　the　Oliver　Chilled　Plow　Works　at　South　Bend　is　today　one　of　the　largest　and　most　favorably　known　privately　owned　industries　in　the　United　States。

From　the　single　plough　it　was　only　a　step　to　two　or　more　ploughs　fastened　together；　doing　more　work　with　approximately　the　same　man　power。　The　sulky　plough；　on　which　the　ploughman　rode；　made　his　work　easier；　and　gave　him　great　control。　Such　ploughs　were　certainly　in　use　as　early　as　1844；　perhaps　ear