the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第6章

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the　pledges　given；　and　of　　his　high　connections；　he　was　murdered　in　the　Castel　Nuovo。　Even　the　　Condottieri　who　had　obtained　their　dominions　by　inheritance；　never　felt　　themselves　safe。　When　Roberto　Malatesta　and　Federigo　of　Urbino　died　on　　the　same　day　（1482）；　the　one　at　Rome；　the　other　at　Bologna；　it　was　　found　that　each　had　recommended　his　State　to　the　care　of　the　other。　　Against　a　class　of　men　who　themselves　stuck　at　nothing；　everything　was　　held　to　be　permissible。　Francesco　Sforza；　when　quite　young；　had　married　　a　rich　Calabrian　heiress；　Polissella　Ruffo；　Countess　of　Montalto；　who　　bore　him　a　daughter；　an　aunt　poisoned　both　mother　and　child；　and　seized　　the　inheritance。

From　the　death　of　Piccinino　onwards；　the　foundations　of　new　States　by　　the　Condottieri　became　a　scandal　not　to　be　tolerated。　The　four　great　　Powers；　Naples；　Milan；　the　Papacy；　and　Venice；　formed　among　themselves　　a　political　equilibrium　which　refused　to　allow　of　any　disturbance。　In　　the　States　of　the　Church；　which　swarmed　with　petty　tyrants；　who　in　part　　were；　or　had　been；　Condottieri；　the　nephews　of　the　Popes；　since　the　　time　of　Sixtus　IV；　monopolized　the　right　to　all　such　undertakings。　But　　at　the　first　sign　of　a　political　crisis；　the　soldiers　of　fortune　　appeared　again　upon　the　scene。　Under　the　wretched　administration　of　　Innocent　VIII　it　was　near　happening　that　a　certain　Boccalino；　who　had　　formerly　served　in　the　Burgundian　army；　gave　himself　and　the　town　of　　Osimo；　of　which　he　was　master；　up　to　the　Turkish　forces；　fortunately；　　through　the　intervention　of　Lorenzo　the　Magnificent；　he　proved　willing　　to　be　paid　off；　and　took　himself　away。　In　the　year　1495；　when　the　wars　　of　Charles　VIII　had　turned　Italy　upside　down；　the　Condottiere　Vidovero；　　of　Brescia；　made　trial　of　his　strength；　he　had　already　seized　the　town　　of　Cesena　and　murdered　many　of　the　nobles　and　the　burghers；　but　the　　citadel　held　out；　and　he　was　forced　to　withdraw。　He　then；　at　the　head　　of　a　band　lent　him　by　another　scoundrel；　Pandolfo　Malatesta　of　Rimini；　　son　of　the　Roberto　already　spoken　of；　and　Venetian　Condottiere；　wrested　　the　town　of　Castelnuovo　from　the　Archbishop　of　Ravenna。　The　Venetians；　　fearing　that　worse　would　follow；　and　urged　also　by　the　Pope；　ordered　　Pandolfo；　'with　the　kindest　intentions；'　to　take　an　opportunity　of　　arresting　his　good　friend：　the　arrest　was　made；　though　'with　great　　regret；'　whereupon　the　order　came　to　bring　the　prisoner　to　the　gallows。　　Pandolfo　was　considerate　enough　to　strangle　him　in　prison；　and　then　　show　his　corpse　to　the　people。　The　last　notable　example　of　such　　usurpers　is　the　famous　Castellan　of　Musso；　who　during　the　confusion　in　　the　Milanese　territory　which　followed　the　battle　of　Pavia　（1525）；　　improvised　a　sovereignty　on　the　Lake　of　Como。　

The　Smaller　Despotisms

It　may　be　said　in　general　of　the　despotisms　of　the　fifteenth　century　　that　the　greatest　crimes　are　most　frequent　in　the　smallest　States。　In　　these；　where　the　family　was　numerous　and　all　the　members　wished　to　live　　in　a　manner　befitting　their　rank；　disputes　respecting　the　inheritance　　were　unavoidable。　Bernardo　Varano　of　Camerino　put　（1434）　two　of　his　　brothers　to　death；　wishing　to　divide　their　property　among　his　sons。　　Where　the　ruler　of　a　single　town　was　distinguished　by　a　wise；　moderate；　　and　humane　government；　and　by　zeal　for　intellectual　culture；　he　was　　generally　a　member　of　some　great　family；　or　politically　＇　dependent　on　　it。　This　was　the　case；　for　example；　with　Alessandro　Sforza；　Prince　of　　Pesaro；　brother　of　the　great　Francesco；　and　stepfather　of　Federigo　of　　Urbino　（d。　1473）。　Prudent　in　administration；　just　and　affable　in　his　　rule；　he　enjoyed；　after　；　years　of　warfare；　a　tranquil　reign；　collected　　a　noble　library；　and　passed　his　leisure　in　learned　or　religious　　conversation。　A　man　of　the　same　class　was　Giovanni　II　Bentivoglio　of　　Bologna　（1463…1508）；　whose　policy　was　determined　by　that　of　the　Este　　and　the　Sforza。　What　ferocity　and　bloodthirstiness　is　found；　on　the　　other　hand；　among　the　Varani　of　Camerino；　the　Malatesta　of　Rimini；　the　　Manfreddi　of　Faenza；　and　above　all　among　the　Baglioni　of　Perugia。　We　　find　a　striking　picture　of　the　events　in　the　last…named　family　towards　　the　close　of　the　fifteenth　century；　in　the　admirable　historical　　narratives　of　Graziani　and　Matarazzo。　

The　Baglioni　were　one　of　those　families　whose　rule　never　took　the　shape　　of　an　avowed　despotism。　It　was　rather　a　leadership　exercised　by　means　　of　their　vast　wealth　and　of　their　practical　influence　in　the　choice　of　　public　officers。　Within　the　family　one　man　was　recognized　as　head；　but　　deep　and　secret　jealousy　prevailed　among　the　members　of　the　different　　branches。　Opposed　to　the　Baglioni　stood　another　aristocratic　party；　led　　by　the　family　of　the　Oddi。　In　1487　the　city　was　turned　into　a　camp；　and　　the　houses　of　the　leading　citizens　swarmed　with　bravos；　scenes　of　　violence　were　of　daily　occurrence。　At　t　he　burial　of　a　German　student；　　who　had　been　assassinated；　two　colleges　took　arms　against　one　another；　　sometimes　the　bravos　of　the　different　houses　even　joined　battle　in　the　　public　square。　The　complaints　of　the　merchants　and　artisans　were　vain；　　the　Papal　Governors　and　nipoti　held　their　tongues；　or　took　themselves　　off　on　the　first　opportunity。　At　last　the　Oddi　were　forced　to　abandon　　Perugia；　and　the　city　became　a　beleaguered　fortress　under　the　absolute　　despotism　of　the　Baglioni；　who　used　even　the　cathedral　as　barracks。　　Plots　and　surprises　were　met　with　cruel　vengeance；　in　the　year　1491　　after　130　conspirators；　who　had　forced　their　way　into　the　city；　were　　killed　and　hung　up　at　the　Palazzo　Communale；　thirty…five　altars　were　　erected　in　the　square；　and　for　three　days　mass　was　performed　and　　processions　held；　to　take　away　the　curse　which　rested　on　the　spot。　A　　nipote　of　Innocent　VIII　was　in　open　day　run　through　in　the　street。　A　　nipote　of　Alexander　VI；　who　was　sent　to　smooth　matters　over；　was　　dismissed　with　public　contempt。　All　the　while　the　two　leaders　of　the　　ruling　house；　Guido　and　Ridolfo；　were　holding　frequent　interviews　with　　Suor　Colomba　of　Rieti；　a　Dominican　nun　of　saintly　reputation　and　　miraculous　powers；　who　under　penalty　of　some　great　disaster　ordered　　them　to　make　peace　naturally　in　vain。　Nevertheless　the　chronicle　takes　　the　opportunity　to　point　out　the　devotion　and　piety　of　the　better　men　　in　Perugia　during　this　reign　of　terror。　When　in　1494　Charles　VIII　　approached；　the　Baglioni　from　Perugia　and　the　exiles　encamped　in　and　　near　Assisi　conducted　the　war　with　such　ferocity　that　every　house　in　　the　valley　was　levelled　to　the　ground。　The　fields　lay　untilled。　the　　peasants　were　turned　into　plundering　and　murdering　savages；　the　fresh…　grown　bushes　were　filled　with　stags　and　wolves；　and　the　beasts　grew　fat　　on　the　bodies　of　the　slain；　on　so…called　'Christian　flesh。'　When　　Alexander　VI　withdrew　（1495）　into　Umbria　before　Charles　VIII；　then　　returning　from　Naples；　it　occurred　to　him；　when　at　Perugia；　that　he　　might　now　rid　himself　of　the　Baglioni　once　for　all；　he　proposed　to　　Guido　a　festival　or　tournament；　or　something　else　of　the　same　kind；　　which　would　bring　the　whole　family　together。　Guido；　however；　was　of　　opinion　'that　the　most　impressive　spectacle　of　all　would　be　to　see　the　　whole　military　force　of　Perugia　collected　in　a　body；'　whereupon　the　　Pope　abandoned　his　project。　Soon　after；　the　exiles　made　another　attack　　in　which　nothing　but　the　personal　heroism　of　the　Baglioni　won　them　the　　victory。　It　was　then　that　Simonetto　Baglione；　a　lad　of　scarcely　　eighteen；　fought　in　the　square　with　a　handful　of　followers　against　　hundreds　of　the　enemy：　he　fell　at　last　with　more　than　twenty　wounds；　　but　recovered　himself　when　Astorre　Baglione　came　to　his　help；　and　　mounting　on　horseback　in　gilded　amour　with　a　falcon　on　his　helmet；　　'like　Mars　in　bearing　and　in　deeds；　plunged　into　the　struggle。'　

At　that　time　Raphael；　a　boy　of　twelve　years　of　age；　was　at　school　under　　Pietro　Perugino。　The　impressions　of　these　days　are　perhaps　immortalized　　in　the　small；　early　pictures　of　St。　Michael　and　St。　George：　something　　of　them；　it　may　be；　lives　eternally　in　the　large　painting　of　St。　　Michael：　and　if　Astorre　Baglione　has　anywhere　found　his　apotheosis；　it　　is　in　the　figure　of　the　heavenly　horseman　in　the　H