the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第57章

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have　been　intelligible　to　the　　general　reader。　Dante；　learning　apart；　appeals　to　a　popular　knowledge　　of　the　heavens；　which　the　Italians　of　his　day；　from　the　mere　fact　that　　they　were　a　nautical　people；　had　in　common　with　the　ancients。　This　　knowledge　of　the　rising　and　setting　of　the　constellations　has　been　　rendered　superfluous　to　the　modern　world　by　calendars　and　clocks；　and　　with　it　has　gone　whatever　interest　in　astronomy　the　people　may　once　　have　had。　Nowadays；　with　our　schools　and　handbooks；　every　child　knows　what　Dante　did　not　knowthat　the　earth　moves　round　the　sun；　but　the　　interest　once　taken　in　the　subject　itself　has　given　place；　except　in　　the　case　of　astronomical　specialists；　to　the　most　absolute　　indifference。

The　pseudo…science　which　dealt　with　the　stars　proves　nothing　against　　the　inductive　spirit　of　the　Italians　of　that　day。　That　spirit　was　but　　crossed；　and　at　times　overcome；　by　the　passionate　desire　to　penetrate　　the　future。　We　shall　recur　to　the　subject　of　astrology　when　we　come　to　　speak　of　the　moral　and　religious　character　of　the　people。

The　Church　treated　this　and　other　pseudo…sciences　nearly　always　with　　toleration；　and　showed　itself　actually　hostile　even　to　genuine　science　　only　when　a　charge　of　heresy　together　with　necromancy　was　also　in　　questionwhich　certainly　was　often　the　case。　A　point　which　it　would　be　　interesting　to　decide　is　this：　whether　and　in　what　cases　the　Dominican　　（and　also　the　Franciscan）　Inquisitors　in　Italy　were　conscious　of　the　　falsehood　of　the　charges；　and　yet　condemned　the　accused；　either　to　　oblige　some　enemy　of　the　prisoner　or　from　hatred　to　natural　science；　　and　particularly　to　experiments。　The　latter　doubtless　occurred；　but　it　　is　not　easy　to　prove　the　fact。　What　helped　to　cause　such　persecutions　　in　the　North；　namely；　the　opposition　made　to　the　innovators　by　the　　upholders　of　the　received　official；　scholastic　system　of　nature；　was　of　　little　or　no　weight　in　Italy。　Pietro　of　Abano；　at　the　beginning　of　the　　fourteenth　century；　is　well　known　to　have　fallen　a　victim　to　the　envy　　of　another　physician；　who　accused　him　before　the　Inquisition　of　heresy　　and　magic；　and　something　of　the　same　kind　may　have　happened　in　the　case　　of　his　Paduan　contemporary；　Giovannino　Sanguinacci；　who　was　known　as　an　　innovator　in　medical　practice。　He　escaped；　however；　with　banishment。　　Nor　must　it　be　forgotten　that　the　inquisitorial　power　of　the　Dominicans　　was　exercised　less　uniformly　in　Italy　than　in　the　North。　Tyrants　and　　free　cities　in　the　fourteenth　century　treated　the　clergy　at　times　with　　such　sovereign　contempt　that　very　different　matters　from　natural　　science　went　unpunished。　But　when；　with　the　fifteenth　century；　　antiquity　became　the　leading　power　in　Italy；　the　breach　it　made　in　the　　old　system　was　turned　to　account　by　every　branch　of　secular　science。　　Humanism；　nevertheless；　attracted　to　itself　the　best　strength　of　the　　nation；　and　thereby；　no　doubt；　did　injury　to　the　inductive　　investigation　of　nature。　Here　and　there　the　Inquisition　suddenly　　started　into　life；　and　punished　or　burned　physicians　as　blasphemers　or　　magicians。　In　such　cases　it　is　hard　to　discover　what　was　the　true　　motive　underlying　the　condemnation。　But　even　so；　Italy；　at　the　close　of　　the　fifteenth　century；　with　Paolo　Toscanelli；　Luca　Pacioli　and　Leonardo　　da　Vinci；　held　incomparably　the　highest　place　among　European　nations　in　　mathematics　and　the　natural　sciences；　and　the　learned　men　of　every　　country；　even　Regiomontanus　and　Copernicus；　confessed　themselves　its　　pupils。　This　glory　survived　the　Counter…reformation；　and　even　today　the　　Italians　would　occupy　the　first　place　in　this　respect　if　circumstances　　had　not　made　it　impossible　for　the　greatest　minds　to　devote　themselves　　to　tranquil　research。

A　significant　proof　of　the　widespread　interest　in　natural　history　is　　found　in　the　zeal　which　showed　itself　at　an　early　period　for　the　　collection　and　comparative　study　of　plants　and　animals。　Italy　claims　to　　be　the　first　creator　of　botanical　gar　dens；　though　possibly　they　may　　have　served　a　chiefly　practical　end；　and　the　claim　to　priority　may　be　　itself　disputed。　It　is　of　far　greater　importance　that　princes　and　　wealthy　men；　in　laying　out　their　pleasure…gardens；　instinctively　made　a　　point　of　collecting　the　greatest　possible　number　of　different　plants　in　　all　their　species　and　varieties。　Thus　in　the　fifteenth　century　the　　noble　grounds　of　the　Medicean　Villa　Careggi　appear　from　the　　descriptions　we　have　of　them　to　have　been　almost　a　botanical　garden；　　with　countless　specimens　of　different　trees　and　shrubs。　Of　the　same　　kind　was　a　villa　of　the　Cardinal　Trivulzio；　at　the　beginning　of　the　　sixteenth　century；　in　the　Roman　Campagna　towards　Tivoli；　with　hedges　　made　up　of　various　species　of　roses；　with　trees　of　every　description　the　fruit…trees　especially　showing　an　astonishing　varietywith　twenty　　different　sorts　of　vines　and　a　large　kitchen…garden。　This　is　evidently　　something　very　different　from　the　score　or　two　of　familiar　medicinal　　plants　which　were　to　be　found　in　the　garden　of　any　castle　or　monastery　　in　Western　Europe。　Along　with　a　careful　cultivation　of　fruit　for　the　　purposes　of　the　table；　we　find　an　interest　in　the　plant　for　its　own　　sake；　on　account　of　the　pleasure　it　gives　to　the　eye。　We　learn　from　the　　history　of　art　at　how　late　a　period　this　passion　for　botanical　　collections　was　laid　aside；　and　gave　place　to　what　was　considered　the　　picturesque　style　of　landscape…gardening。

The　collections；　too；　of　foreign　animals　not　only　gratified　curiosity；　　but　served　also　the　higher　purposes　of　observation。　The　facility　of　　transport　from　the　southern　and　eastern　harbors　of　the　Mediterranean；　　and　the　mildness　of　the　Italian　climate；　made　it　practicable　to　buy　the　　largest　animals　of　the　south；　or　to　accept　them　as　presents　from　the　　Sultans。　The　cities　and　princes　were　especially　anxious　to　keep　live　　lions　even　where　a　lion　was　not；　as　in　Florence；　the　emblem　of　the　　State。　The　lions'　den　was　generally　in　or　near　the　government　palace；　　as　in　Perugia　and　Florence；　in　Rome；　it　lay　on　the　slope　of　the　　Capitol。　The　beasts　sometimes　served　as　executioners　of　political　　judgements；　and　no　doubt；　apart　from　this；　they　kept　alive　a　certain　　terror　in　the　popular　mind。　Their　condition　was　also　held　to　be　ominous　　of　good　or　evil。　Their　fertility；　especially；　was　considered　a　sign　of　　public　prosperity；　and　no　less　a　man　than　Giovanni　Villani　thought　it　　worth　recording　that　he　was　present　at　the　delivery　of　a　lioness。　The　　cubs　were　often　given　to　allied　States　and　princes；　or　to　Condottieri　　as　a　reward　of　their　valor。　In　addition　to　the　lions；　the　Florentines　　began　very　early　to　keep　leopards；　for　which　a　special　keeper　was　　appointed。　Borso　of　Ferrara　used　to　set　his　lion　to　fight　with　bulls；　　bears；　and　wild　boars。

By　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　however；　true　menageries　　（serragli）；　now　reckoned　part　of　the　suitable　appointments　of　a　court；　　were　kept　by　many　of　the　princes。　'It　belongs　to　the　position　of　the　　great；'　says　Matarazzo；　'to　keep　horses；　dogs；　mules；　falcons；　and　　other　birds；　court…jesters；　singers；　and　foreign　animals。'　The　　menagerie　at　Naples；　in　the　time　of　Ferrante；　contained　even　a　giraffe　　and　a　zebra；　presented；　it　seems；　by　the　ruler　of　Baghdad。　Filippo　　Maria　Visconti　possessed　not　only　horses　which　cost　him　each　500　or　　1；000　pieces　of　gold；　and　valuable　English　dogs；　but　a　number　of　　leopards　brought　from　all　parts　of　the　East；　the　expense　of　his　hunting　　birds；　which　were　collected　from　the　countries　of　Northern　Europe；　　amounted　to　3；000　pieces　of　gold　a　month。　King　Emanuel　the　Great　of　　Portugal　knew　well　what　he　was　about　when　he　presented　Leo　X　with　an　　elephant　and　a　rhinoceros。　It　was　under　such　circumstances　that　the　　foundations　of　a　scientific　zoology　and　botany　were　laid。

A　practical　fruit　of　these　zoological　studies　was　the　establishment　of　　studs；　of　which　the　Mantuan；　under　Francesco　Gonzaga；　was　esteemed　the　　first　in　Europe。　All　interest　in；　and　knowledge　of　the　different　breeds　　of　horses　is　as　old；　no　doubt；　as　riding　itself；　and　the　crossing　of　　the　European　with　the　Asiatic　must　have　been　common　from　the　time　of　　the　Crusades。　In　Italy；　a　special　inducement　to　perfect　the　bre