the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第49章

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inists　Bembo　　and　Giovio。　They　wrote　Italian；　not　only　because　they　could　not　vie　　with　the　Ciceronian　elegance　of　the　philologists；　but　because；　like　　Machiavelli；　they　could　only　record　in　a　living　tongue　the　living　　results　of　their　own　immediate　observations　and　we　may　add　in　the　case　　of　Machiavelli；　of　his　observation　of　the　pastand　because；　as　in　the　　case　of　Guicciardini；　Varchi；　and　many　others；　what　they　most　desired　　was；　that　their　view　of　the　course　of　events　should　have　as　wide　and　　deep　a　practical　effect　as　possible。　Even　when　they　only　write　for　a　　few　friends；　like　Francesco　Vettori；　they　feel　an　inward　need　to　utter　　their　testimony　on　men　and　events；　and　to　explain　and　justify　their　　share　in　the　latter。

And　yet；　with　all　that　is　characteristic　in　their　language　and　style；　　they　were　powerfully　affected　by　antiquity；　and；　without　its　influence；　　would　be　inconceivable。　They　were　not　humanists；　but　they　had　passed　　through　the　school　of　humanism　and　have　in　them　more　of　the　spirit　of　　the　ancient　historians　than　most　of　the　imitators　of　Livy。　Like　the　　ancients；　they　were　citizens　who　wrote　for　citizens。

Antiquity　as　the　Common　Source

We　cannot　attempt　to　trace　the　influence　of　humanism　in　the　special　　sciences。　Each　has　its　own　history；　in　which　the　Italian　investigators　　of　this　period；　chiefly　through　their　rediscovery　of　the　results　　attained　by　antiquity；　mark　a　new　epoch；　with　which　the　modern　period　　of　the　science　in　question　begins　with　more　or　less　distinctness。　With　　regard　to　philosophy；　too；　we　must　refer　the　reader　to　the　special　　historical　works　on　the　subject。　The　influence　of　the　old　philosophers　　on　Italian　culture　will　appear　at　times　immense；　at　times　　inconsiderable；　the　former；　when　we　consider　how　the　doctrines　of　　Aristotle；　chiefly　drawn　from　the　Ethics　and　Politicsboth　widely　　diffused　at　an　early　periodbecame　the　common　property　of　educated　　Italians；　and　how　the　whole　method　of　abstract　thought　was　governed　by　　him；　the　latter；　when　we　remember　how　slight　was　the　dogmatic　influence　　of　the　old　philosophies；　and　even　of　the　enthusiastic　Florentine　　Platonists；　on　the　spirit　of　the　people　at　large。　What　looks　like　such　　an　influence　is　generally　no　more　than　a　consequence　of　the　new　culture　　in　general；　and　of　the　special　growth　and　development　of　the　Italian　　mind。　When　we　come　to　speak　of　religion；　we　shall　have　more　to　say　on　　this　head。　But　in　by　far　the　greater　number　of　cases；　we　have　to　do；　　not　with　the　general　culture　of　the　people　with　the　utterances　of　　individuals　or　of　learned　circles；　and　here；　too；　a　distinction　must　be　　drawn　between　the　true　assimilation　of　ancient　doctrines　and　　fashionable　make…believe。　For　with　many；　antiquity　was　only　a　fashion；　　even　among　very　learned　people。

Nevertheless；　all　that　looks　like　affectation　to　our　age；　need　not　then　　have　actually　been　so。　The　giving　of　Greek　and　Latin　names　to　children；　　for　example；　is　better　and　more　respectable　than　the　present　practice　　of　taking　them；　especially　the　female　names；　from　novels。　When　the　　enthusiasm　for　the　ancient　world　was　greater　than　for　the　saints；　it　　was　simple　and　natural　enough　that　noble　families　called　their　sons　　Agamemnon；　Tydeus；　and　Achilles；　and　that　a　painter　named　his　son　　Apelles　and　his　daughter　Minerva。58　Nor　will　it　appear　unreasonable　　that；　instead　of　a　family　name；　which　people　were　often　glad　to　get　rid　　of；　a　well…sounding　ancient　name　was　chosen。　A　local　name；　shared　by　　all　residents　in　the　place；　and　not　yet　transformed　into　a　family　name；　　was　willingly　given　up；　especially　when　its　religious　associations　made　　it　inconvenient。　Filippo　da　San　Gimignano　called　himself　Callimachus。　　The　man；　mis…　understood　and　insulted　by　his　family；　who　made　his　　fortune　as　a　scholar　in　foreign　cities；　could　afford；　even　if　he　were　a　　Sanseverino；　to　change　his　name　to　Julius　Pomponius　Laetus。　Even　the　　simple　translation　of　a　name　into　Latin　or　Greek；　as　was　almost　　uniformly　the　custom　in　Germany；　may　be　excused　to　a　generation　which　　spoke　and　wrote　Latin；　and　which　needed　names　that　could　be　not　only　　declined；　but　used　with　facility　in　verse　and　prose。　What　was　　blameworthy　and　ridiculous　was　the　change　of　half　a　name；　baptismal　or　　family；　to　give　it　a　classical　sound　and　a　new　sense。　Thus　Giovanni　was　　turned　into　Jovianus　or　Janus；　Pietro　to　Petreius　or　Pierius；　Antonio　　to　Aoniuss　Sannazaro　to　Syncerus；　Luca　Grasso　to　Lucius　Crassus。　　Ariosto；　who　speaks　with　such　derision　of　all　this；　lived　to　see　　children　called　after　his　own　heroes　and　heroines。

Nor　must　we　judge　too　severely　the　latinization　of　many　usages　of　　social　life；　such　as　the　titles　of　officials；　of　cere　monies；　and　the　　like；　in　the　writers　of　the　period。　As　long　as　people　were　satisfied　　with　a　simple；　fluent　Latin　style；　as　was　the　case　with　most　writers　　from　Petrarch　to；　Aeneas　Sylvius；　this　practice　was　not　so　frequent　and　　striking；　it　became　inevitable　when　a　faultless；　Ciceronian　Latin　was　　demanded。　Modern　names　and　things　no　longer　harmonized　with　the　style；　　unless　they　were　first　artificially　changed。　Pedants　found　a　pleasure　　in　addressing　municipal　counsellors　as　'Patres　Conscripti；'　nuns　as　　'Virgines　Vestales；'　and　entitling　every　saint　'Divus'　or　'Deus'；　but　　men　of　better　taste；　such　as　Paolo　Giovio；　only　did　so　when　and　because　　they　could　not　help　it。　But　as　Giovio　does　it　naturally；　and　lays　no　　special　stress　upon　it；　we　are　not　offended　if；　in　his　melodious　　language；　the　cardinals　appear　as　'Senatores；'　their　dean　as　'Princeps　　Senatus；'　excommunication　as　'Dirae；'　and　the　carnival　as　'Lupercalia。'　　The　example　of　this　author　alone　is　enough　to　warn　us　against　drawing　a　　hasty　inference　from　these　peculiarities　of　style　as　to　the　writer's　　whole　mode　of　thinking。

The　history　of　Latin　composition　cannot　here　be　traced　in　detail。　For　　fully　two　centuries　the　humanists　acted　as　if　Latin　were；　and　must　　remain；　the　only　language　worthy　to　be　written。　Poggio　deplores　that　　Dante　wrote　his　great　poem　in　Italian；　and　Dante；　as　is　well　known；　　actually　made　the　attempt　in　Latin；　and　wrote　the　beginning　of　the　　'Inferno'　first　in　hexameters。　The　whole　future　of　Italian　poetry　hung　　on　his　not　continuing　in　the　same　style；　but　even　Petrarch　relied　more　　on　his　Latin　poetry　than　on　the　Sonnets　and　'Canzoni；'　and　Ariosto　　himself　was　desired　by　some　to　write　his　poem　in　Latin。　A　stronger　　coercion　never　existed　in　literature；　but　poetry　shook　it　off　for　the　　most　part；　and　it　may　be　said；　without　the　risk　of　too　great　optimism；　　that　it　was　well　for　Italian　poetry　to　have　had　both　means　of　　expressing　itself。　In　both　something　great　and　characteristic　was　　achieved；　and　in　each　we　can　see　the　reason　why　Latin　or　Italian　was　　chosen。　Perhaps　the　same　may　be　said　of　prose。　The　position　and　　influence　of　Italian　culture　throughout　the　world　depended　on　the　fact　　that　certain　subjects　were　treated　in　Latin'urbi　et　orbi'while　　Italian　prose　was　written　best　of　all　by　those　to　whom　it　cost　an　　inward　struggle　not　to　write　in　Latin。

From　the　fourteenth　century　Cicero　was　recognized　universally　as　the　　purest　model　of　prose。　This　was　by　no　means　due　solely　to　a　　dispassionate　opinion　in　favour　of　his　choice　of　language；　of　the　　structure　of　his　sentences；　and　of　his　style　of　composition；　but　rather　　to　the　fact　that　the　Italian　spirit　responded　fully　and　instinctively　　to　the　amiability　of　the　letter　writer；　to　the　brilliancy　of　the　　orator；　and　to　the　lucid　exposition　of　the　philosophical　thinker。　Even　　Petrarch　recognized　dearly　the　weakness　of　Cicero　as　a　man　and　a　　statesman；　though　he　respected　him　too　much　to　rejoice　over　them。　After　　Petrarch's　time；　the　epistolary　style　was　formed　entirely　on　the　　pattern　of　Cicero；　and　the　rest；　with　the　exception　of　the　narrative　　style；　followed　the　same　influence。　Yet　the　true　Ciceronianism；　which　　rejected　every　phrase　which　could　not　be　justified　out　of　the　great　　authority；　did　not　appear　till　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　when　　the　grammatical　writings　of　Lorenzo　Valla　had　begun　to　tell　on　all　　Italy；　and　when　the　opinions　of　the　Roman　historians　of　literature　had　　been　sifted　and　compared。　Then　every　shade　of　difference　in　the　style