the malay archipelago-1-第3章

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art　or　another　of　this　district；　almost　every　year。　On　many　of　the　islands　the　years　of　the　great　earthquakes　form　the　chronological　epochs　of　the　native　inhabitants；　by　the　aid　of　which　the　ages　of　their　children　are　remembered；　and　the　dates　of　many　important　events　are　determined。

I　can　only　briefly　allude　to　the　many　fearful　eruptions　that　have　taken　place　in　this　region。　In　the　amount　of　injury　to　life　and　property；　and　in　the　magnitude　of　their　effects；　they　have　not　been　surpassed　by　any　upon　record。　Forty　villages　were　destroyed　by　the　eruption　of　Papandayang　in　Java；　in　1772；　when　the　whole　mountain　was　blown　up　by　repeated　explosions；　and　a　large　lake　left　in　its　place。　By　the　great　eruption　of　Tomboro　in　Sumbawa；　in　1815；　12；000　people　were　destroyed；　and　the　ashes　darkened　the　air　and　fell　thickly　upon　the　earth　and　sea　for　300　miles　around。　Even　quite　recently；　since　I　left　the　country；　a　mountain　which　had　been　quiescent　for　more　than　200　years　suddenly　burst　into　activity。　The　island　of　Makian；　one　of　the　Moluccas；　was　rent　open　in　1646　by　a　violent　eruption　which　left　a　huge　chasm　on　one　side；　extending　into　the　heart　of　the　mountain。　It　was；　when　I　last　visited　it　in　1860；　clothed　with　vegetation　to　the　summit；　and　contained　twelve　populous　Malay　villages。　On　the　29th　of　December；　1862；　after　215　years　of　perfect　inaction；　it　again　suddenly　burst　forth；　blowing　up　and　completely　altering　the　appearance　of　the　mountain；　destroying　the　greater　part　of　the　inhabitants；　and　sending　forth　such　volumes　of　ashes　as　to　darken　the　air　at　Ternate；　forty　miles　off；　and　to　almost　entirely　destroy　the　growing　crops　on　that　and　the　surrounding　islands。

The　island　of　Java　contains　more　volcanoes；　active　and　extinct；　than　any　other　known　district　of　equal　extent。　They　are　about　forty…five　in　number；　and　many　of　them　exhibit　most　beautiful　examples　of　the　volcanic　cone　on　a　large　scale；　single　or　double；　with　entire　or　truncated　summits；　and　averaging　10；000　feet　high。

It　is　now　well　ascertained　that　almost　all　volcanoes　have　been　slowly　built　up　by　the　accumulation　of　mattermud；　ashes；　and　lavaejected　by　themselves。　The　openings　or　craters；　however；　frequently　shift　their　position；　so　that　a　country　may　be　covered　with　a　more　or　less　irregular　series　of　hills　in　chains　and　masses；　only　here　and　there　rising　into　lofty　cones；　and　yet　the　whole　may　be　produced　by　true　volcanic　action。　In　this　manner　the　greater　part　of　Java　has　been　formed。　There　has　been　some　elevation；　especially　on　the　south　coast；　where　extensive　cliffs　of　coral　limestone　are　found；　and　there　may　be　a　substratum　of　older　stratified　rocks；　but　still　essentially　Java　is　volcanic；　and　that　noble　and　fertile　islandthe　very　garden　of　the　East；　and　perhaps　upon　the　whole　the　richest；　the　best　cultivated；　and　the　best　governed　tropical　island　in　the　worldowes　its　very　existence　to　the　same　intense　volcanic　activity　which　still　occasionally　devastates　its　surface。

The　great　island　of　Sumatra　exhibits；　in　proportion　to　its　extent；　a　much　smaller　number　of　volcanoes；　and　a　considerable　portion　of　it　has　probably　a　non…volcanic　origin。

To　the　eastward；　the　long　string　of　islands　from　Java；　passing　by　the　north　of　Timor　and　away　to　Panda；　are　probably　all　due　to　volcanic　action。　Timor　itself　consists　of　ancient　stratified　rocks；　but　is　said　to　have　one　volcano　near　its　centre。

Going　northward；　Amboyna；　a　part　of　Bouru；　and　the　west　end　of　Ceram；　the　north　part　of　Gilolo；　and　all　the　small　islands　around　it；　the　northern　extremity　of　Celebes；　and　the　islands　of　Sian　and　Sang…air；　are　wholly　volcanic。　The　Philippine　Archipelago　contains　many　active　and　extinct　volcanoes；　and　has　probably　been　reduced　to　its　present　fragmentary　condition　by　subsidences　attending　on　volcanic　action。

All　along　this　great　line　of　volcanoes　are　to　be　found　more　or　less　palpable　signs　of　upheaval　and　depression　of　land。　The　range　of　islands　south　of　Sumatra；　a　part　of　the　south　coast　of　Java　and　of　the　islands　east　of　it；　the　west　and　east　end　of　Timor；　portions　of　all　the　Moluccas；　the　Ke　and　Aru　Islands；　Waigiou；　and　the　whole　south　and　east　of　Gilolo；　consist　in　a　great　measure　of　upraised　coral…rock；　exactly　corresponding　to　that　now　forming　in　the　adjacent　seas。　In　many　places　I　have　observed　the　unaltered　surfaces　of　the　elevated　reefs；　with　great　masses　of　coral　standing　up　in　their　natural　position；　and　hundreds　of　shells　so　fresh…looking　that　it　was　hard　to　believe　that　they　had　been　more　than　a　few　years　out　of　the　water；　and；　in　fact；　it　is　very　probable　that　such　changes　have　occurred　within　a　few　centuries。

The　united　lengths　of　these　volcanic　belts　is　about　ninety　degrees；　or　one…fourth　of　the　entire　circumference　of　the　globe。　Their　width　is　about　fifty　miles；　but；　for　a　space　of　two　hundred　miles　on　each　side　of　them；　evidences　of　subterranean　action　are　to　be　found　in　recently　elevated　coral…rock；　or　in　barrier　coral…　reefs；　indicating　recent　submergence。　In　the　very　centre　or　focus　of　the　great　curve　of　volcanoes　is　placed　the　large　island　of　Borneo；　in　which　no　sign　of　recent　volcanic　action　has　yet　been　observed；　and　where　earthquakes；　so　characteristic　of　the　surrounding　regions；　are　entirely　unknown。　The　equally　large　island　of　New　Guinea　occupies　another　quiescent　area；　on　which　no　sign　of　volcanic　action　has　yet　been　discovered。　With　the　exception　of　the　eastern　end　of　its　northern　peninsula；　the　large　and　curiously…shaped　island　of　Celebes　is　also　entirely　free　from　volcanoes；　and　there　is　some　reason　to　believe　that　the　volcanic　portion　has　once　formed　a　separate　island。　The　Malay　Peninsula　is　also　non…volcanic。

The　first　and　most　obvious　division　of　the　Archipelago　would　therefore　be　into　quiescent　and　volcanic　regions；　and　it　might；　perhaps；　be　expected　that　such　a　division　would　correspond　to　some　differences　in　the　character　of　the　vegetation　and　the　forms　of　life。　This　is　the　case；　however；　to　a　very　limited　extent；　and　we　shall　presently　see　that；　although　this　development　of　subterranean　fires　is　on　so　vast　a　scalehas　piled　up　chains　of　mountains　ten　or　twelve　thousand　feet　highhas　broken　up　continents　and　raised　up　islands　from　the　oceanyet　it　has　all　the　character　of　a　recent　action　which　has　not　yet　succeeded　in　obliterating　the　traces　of　a　more　ancient　distribution　of　land　and　water。

Contrasts　of　Vegetation。Placed　immediately　upon　the　Equator　and　surrounded　by　extensive　oceans；　it　is　not　surprising　that　the　various　islands　of　the　Archipelago　should　be　almost　always　clothed　with　a　forest　vegetation　from　the　level　of　the　sea　to　the　summits　of　the　loftiest　mountains。　This　is　the　general　rule。　Sumatra；　New　Guinea；　Borneo；　the　Philippines　and　the　Moluccas；　and　the　uncultivated　parts　of　Java　and　Celebes；　are　all　forest　countries；　except　a　few　small　and　unimportant　tracts；　due　perhaps；　in　some　cases；　to　ancient　cultivation　or　accidental　fires。　To　this；　however；　there　is　one　important　exception　in　the　island　of　Timor　and　all　the　smaller　islands　around　it；　in　which　there　is　absolutely　no　forest　such　as　exists　in　the　other　islands；　and　this　character　extends　in　a　lesser　degree　to　Flores；　Sumbawa；　Lombock；　and　Bali。

In　Timor　the　most　common　trees　are　Eucalypti　of　several　species；　also　characteristic　of　Australia；　with　sandalwood；　acacia；　and　other　sorts　in　less　abundance。　These　are　scattered　over　the　country　more　or　less　thickly；　but；　never　so　as　to　deserve　the　name　of　a　forest。　Coarse　and　scanty　grasses　grow　beneath　them　on　the　more　barren　hills；　and　a　luxuriant　herbage　in　the　moister　localities。　In　the　islands　between　Timor　and　Java　there　is　often　a　more　thickly　wooded　country　abounding　in　thorny　and　prickly　trees。　These　seldom　reach　any　great　height；　and　during　the　force　of　the　dry　season　they　almost　completely　lose　their　leaves；　allowing　the　ground　beneath　them　to　be　parched　up；　and　contrasting　strongly　with　the　damp；　gloomy；　ever…verdant　forests　of　the　other　islands。　This　peculiar　character；　which　extends　in　a　less　degree　to　the　southern　peninsula　of　Celebes　and　the　east　end　of　Java；　is　most　probably　owing　to　the　proximity　of　Australia。　The　south…east　monsoon；　which　lasts　for　about　two…thirds　of　the　year　（from　March　to　November）；　blowing