a history of science-2-第8章

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ns　for　the　sick…room；　such　as　the　device　of　a　rope；　suspended　from　the　ceiling　over　the　bed；　by　which　a　patient　may　move　himself　about　more　easily；　and　in　some　of　his　improvements　in　surgical　dressings；　such　as　stiffening　bandages　by　dipping　them　in　the　white　of　an　egg　so　that　they　are　held　firmly。　He　treated　broken　limbs　in　the　suspended　cradle　still　in　use；　and　introduced　the　method　of　making　〃traction〃　on　a　broken　limb　by　means　of　a　weight　and　pulley；　to　prevent　deformity　through　shortening　of　the　member。　He　was　one　of　the　first　physicians　to　recognize　the　utility　of　spectacles；　and　recommended　them　in　cases　not　amenable　to　treatment　with　lotions　and　eye…waters。　In　some　of　his　surgical　operations；　such　as　trephining　for　fracture　of　the　skull；　his　technique　has　been　little　improved　upon　even　in　modern　times。　In　one　of　these　operations　he　successfully　removed　a　portion　of　a　man's　brain。

Surgery　was　undoubtedly　stimulated　greatly　at　this　period　by　the　constant　wars。　Lay　physicians；　as　a　class；　had　been　looked　down　upon　during　the　Dark　Ages；　but　with　the　beginning　of　the　return　to　rationalism；　the　services　of　surgeons　on　the　battle…field；　to　remove　missiles　from　wounds；　and　to　care　for　wounds　and　apply　dressings；　came　to　be　more　fully　appreciated。　In　return　for　his　labors　the　surgeon　was　thus　afforded　better　opportunities　for　observing　wounds　and　diseases；　which　led　naturally　to　a　gradual　improvement　in　surgical　methods。

FIFTEENTH…CENTURY　MEDICINE　The　thirteenth　and　fourteenth　centuries　had　seen　some　slight　advancement　in　the　science　of　medicine；　at　least；　certain　surgeons　and　physicians；　if　not　the　generality；　had　made　advances；　but　it　was　not　until　the　fifteenth　century　that　the　general　revival　of　medical　learning　became　assured。　In　this　movement；　naturally；　the　printing…press　played　an　all…important　part。　Medical　books；　hitherto　practically　inaccessible　to　the　great　mass　of　physicians；　now　became　common；　and　this　output　of　reprints　of　Greek　and　Arabic　treatises　revealed　the　fact　that　many　of　the　supposed　true　copies　were　spurious。　These　discoveries　very　naturally　aroused　all　manner　of　doubt　and　criticism；　which　in　turn　helped　in　the　development　of　independent　thought。　A　certain　manuscript　of　the　great　Cornelius　Celsus；　the　De　Medicine；　which　had　been　lost　for　many　centuries；　was　found　in　the　church　of　St。　Ambrose；　at　Milan；　in　1443；　and　was　at　once　put　into　print。　The　effect　of　the　publication　of　this　book；　which　had　lain　in　hiding　for　so　many　centuries；　was　a　revelation；　showing　the　medical　profession　how　far　most　of　their　supposed　true　copies　of　Celsus　had　drifted　away　from　the　original。　The　indisputable　authenticity　of　this　manuscript；　discovered　and　vouched　for　by　the　man　who　shortly　after　became　Pope　Nicholas　V。；　made　its　publication　the　more　impressive。　The　output　in　book　form　of　other　authorities　followed　rapidly；　and　the　manifest　discrepancies　between　such　teachers　as　Celsus；　Hippocrates；　Galen；　and　Pliny　heightened　still　more　the　growing　spirit　of　criticism。　These　doubts　resulted　in　great　controversies　as　to　the　proper　treatment　of　certain　diseases；　some　physicians　following　Hippocrates；　others　Galen　or　Celsus；　still　others　the　Arabian　masters。　One　of　the　most　bitter　of　these　contests　was　over　the　question　of　〃revulsion；〃　and　〃derivation〃that　is；　whether　in　cases　of　pleurisy　treated　by　bleeding；　the　venesection　should　be　made　at　a　point　distant　from　the　seat　of　the　disease；　as　held　by　the　〃revulsionists；〃　or　at　a　point　nearer　and　on　the　same　side　of　the　body；　as　practised　by　the　〃derivationists。〃　That　any　great　point　for　discussion　could　be　raised　in　the　fifteenth　or　sixteenth　centuries　on　so　simple　a　matter　as　it　seems　to…day　shows　how　necessary　to　the　progress　of　medicine　was　the　discovery　of　the　circulation　of　the　blood　made　by　Harvey　two　centuries　later。　After　Harvey's　discovery　no　such　discussion　could　have　been　possible；　because　this　discovery　made　it　evident　that　as　far　as　the　general　effect　upon　the　circulation　is　concerned；　it　made　little　difference　whether　the　bleeding　was　done　near　a　diseased　part　or　remote　from　it。　But　in　the　sixteenth　century　this　question　was　the　all…absorbing　one　among　the　doctors。　At　one　time　the　faculty　of　Paris　condemned　〃derivation〃；　but　the　supporters　of　this　method　carried　the　war　still　higher；　and　Emperor　Charles　V。　himself　was　appealed　to。　He　reversed　the　decision　of　the　Paris　faculty；　and　decided　in　favor　of　〃derivation。〃　His　decision　was　further　supported　by　Pope　Clement　VII。；　although　the　discussion　dragged　on　until　cut　short　by　Harvey's　discovery。　But　a　new　form　of　injury　now　claimed　the　attention　of　the　surgeons；　something　that　could　be　decided　by　neither　Greek　nor　Arabian　authors；　as　the　treatment　of　gun…shot　wounds　was；　for　obvious　reasons；　not　given　in　their　writings。　About　this　time；　also；　came　the　great　epidemics；　〃the　sweating　sickness〃　and　scurvy；　and　upon　these　subjects；　also；　the　Greeks　and　Arabians　were　silent。　John　of　Vigo；　in　his　book；　the　Practica　Copiosa；　published　in　1514；　and　repeated　in　many　editions；　became　the　standard　authority　on　all　these　subjects；　and　thus　supplanted　the　works　of　the　ancient　writers。　According　to　Vigo；　gun…shot　wounds　differed　from　the　wounds　made　by　ordinary　weaponsthat　is；　spear；　arrow；　sword；　or　axein　that　the　bullet；　being　round；　bruised　rather　than　cut　its　way　through　the　tissues；　it　burned　the　flesh；　and；　worst　of　all；　it　poisoned　it。　Vigo　laid　especial　stress　upon　treating　this　last　condition；　recommending　the　use　of　the　cautery　or　the　oil　of　elder；　boiling　hot。　It　is　little　wonder　that　gun…shot　wounds　were　so　likely　to　prove　fatal。　Yet；　after　all；　here　was　the　germ　of　the　idea　of　antisepsis。

NEW　BEGINNINGS　IN　GENERAL　SCIENCE　We　have　dwelt　thus　at　length　on　the　subject　of　medical　science；　because　it　was　chiefly　in　this　field　that　progress　was　made　in　the　Western　world　during　the　mediaeval　period；　and　because　these　studies　furnished　the　point　of　departure　for　the　revival　all　along　the　line。　It　will　be　understood；　however；　from　what　was　stated　in　the　preceding　chapter；　that　the　Arabian　influences　in　particular　were　to　some　extent　making　themselves　felt　along　other　lines。　The　opportunity　afforded　a　portion　of　the　Western　worldnotably　Spain　and　Sicily　to　gain　access　to　the　scientific　ideas　of　antiquity　through　Arabic　translations　could　not　fail　of　influence。　Of　like　character；　and　perhaps　even　more　pronounced　in　degree；　was　the　influence　wrought　by　the　Byzantine　refugees；　who；　when　Constantinople　began　to　be　threatened　by　the　Turks；　migrated　to　the　West　in　considerable　numbers；　bringing　with　them　a　knowledge　of　Greek　literature　and　a　large　number　of　precious　works　which　for　centuries　had　been　quite　forgotten　or　absolutely　ignored　in　Italy。　Now　Western　scholars　began　to　take　an　interest　in　the　Greek　language；　which　had　been　utterly　neglected　since　the　beginning　of　the　Middle　Ages。　Interesting　stories　are　told　of　the　efforts　made　by　such　men　as　Cosmo　de'　Medici　to　gain　possession　of　classical　manuscripts。　The　revival　of　learning　thus　brought　about　had　its　first　permanent　influence　in　the　fields　of　literature　and　art；　but　its　effect　on　science　could　not　be　long　delayed。　Quite　independently　of　the　Byzantine　influence；　however；　the　striving　for　better　intellectual　things　had　manifested　itself　in　many　ways　before　the　close　of　the　thirteenth　century。　An　illustration　of　this　is　found　in　the　almost　simultaneous　development　of　centres　of　teaching；　which　developed　into　the　universities　of　Italy；　France；　England；　and；　a　little　later；　of　Germany。　The　regular　list　of　studies　that　came　to　be　adopted　everywhere　comprised　seven　nominal　branches；　divided　into　two　groupsthe　so…called　quadrivium；　comprising　music；　arithmetic；　geometry；　and　astronomy；　and　the　trivium　comprising　grammar；　rhetoric；　and　logic。　The　vagueness　of　implication　of　some　of　these　branches　gave　opportunity　to　the　teacher　for　the　promulgation　of　almost　any　knowledge　of　which　he　might　be　possessed；　but　there　can　be　no　doubt　that；　in　general；　science　had　but　meagre　share　in　the　curriculum。　In　so　far　as　it　was　given　representation；　its　chief　field　must　have　been　Ptolemaic　astronomy。　The　utter　lack　of　scientific　thought　and　scientific　method　is　illustrated　most　vividly　in　the　works